HANDWORK IN 
WOOD 



Sy WILLIAM NOYES, M.A. 

Assistant Professor. Department of Industrial Arts 

Teachers College, Columbia University 

NEW YORK CITY 




The Manual Arts Press 
Peoria, Illinois 



i"^' 



aO 



COPYRIGHT 

WILLIAM NOYES 

1910 



g^CI,A•i?3:^i4 



Oo ntY students 
past present an6 future 

a token of gratitude 
for belp anb inspiration 



FOREWORD 

This book is intt'iided jJriniarily for teacliers of woodworlc, but tlie 
aiitlior hopes that there will also be other workers in wood, profes- 
sional and amateur, who will {ind in it matter of interest and profit. 
The successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the un- 
tiring assistance of uiy wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, avIio has made 
almost all of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof, and 
attended to numberless details. 

Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and 
suggestions in the text made l)y the following persons : 

Mr. Chas. W. Weick of Teachers College, and Mr. W. F. Vroom 
of Public School Xo. .5, of Xew York City, for revision of Chapters 
IV and \ on tools and fastenings. 

Mr. Clinton S. VanDeusen of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, for 
revision of Chapter X on wood finishing. 

The Forest Service, Washingtou, D. C. for the originals of Figs. 
1. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 1), 1(1, n, 13, 17. 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 
28, 29, 31, 33, and 54. 

The Xew York State Forest Fish and Game Commission for the 
originals of Figs. 12, 14, 15, and 47. 

T. H. McAllister of New York for the originals of Figs. 1(3 and 20. 

The Detroit Publishing Company for the original of Fig. 6. 

The B. F. Sturtevant Company, Hyde Park. ^lass., for the orig- 
inal of Fig. 57. 

Doubleday, Page & Co. for the original of Fig. 3(». 

Mr. Louis A. Bacon, Indianapolis, Ind., for the claui])ing device 
shown in Fig 255. 

Sargent & Company, Xew Haven, Conn., W. C. Toles & Com- 
pany, Chicago, ill., The Berlin Machine Works, Beloit, Wis., A. A. 
Loetscher, Dubuque, Iowa, and the Stanley Eule and Level Co., Xew 
Britain, Conn., for electrotypes. 

Allis Chalmers Company, Milwaukee, Wis., Clark Brothers, Bel- 
mont, X. Y., The M. Garland Company. Bay City, Mich., The Pres- 



cott ComiiaiiT, Menominee, Mich., for illustrations of sawmilling 
machinery. 

And most of all, I wish to acknowledge my obligation to the nu- 
merous writers of whose books and articles I have made free use, to 
which references are made in the appropriate places. 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

General Bibliography 4 

I Logging ? 

11 Sawmilling 30' 

III The Seasoning and Measnring of Wood .... 45. 

IV Wood Hand Tools 51 

V Wood Fastenings 123 

VI Eqnipment and Care of the Shop 136 

VII Tlie Common Joints 151 

A^III Types of Wooden Strnctnres 183 

IX Principles of Joinery 203 

X Wood Finishing 209 

Index 224 



GENERAL BIBLIOGRArHY 

Adams. Heiuv. Joints in \Vn<>(I-^Vurh■. London: GO Queen Victoria St. 1894. 

Alexander. Jerome. 77/r (Inidiiifi and I'sv of Glue. Wood Craft, 5: 1G8, Sep. '06. 

Bailey. Charles H.. .1 »s7»(/v of Manual Training Equipments. Manual Train- 
in;/ Magazine. ():82. dan. "05. 

Barnard. Charles, Tools and Maehincs. N. V.: Silver, Burdett and Co. 1003. 

Barter. S. M.. Woodn:ork. London: Whittaker and Co. 18!t2. 

Benson. \\'. A. S., Elements of Handicraft and Design. London: Macmillan 
and Co. 18'J3. 

lirannt. W. T.. i'ai)iler, (lilder and Varnisher. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird 
& Co. 18!t3. 

JSrunekeii. Ernest Xorth Ameriean Forests and Forestry X. Y. : G. P. Put- 
nam's Sons. ISiMl. 

Clark. R. L. Varnish and Fossil h', mains. London: ('has. Letts & Co. No 
date. 

Compton, A. G.. First Lessons in W ood n'orki ng. X. Y.: Ivison, Blakeman. 
Taylor and Co. IHSS. 

Crawshaw. Fred D.. I'rotilenis in Furniture Making. Peoria. 111.: The ;\lan- 
ual Arts Press. l!l()(i. 

Disston. Henry, and Sons. Handbook for Lumbermen. Philadelphia, Pa. 

Dunlaj). Frederick. Kiln-drying Hardwood Lumber. Wood Craft. 0: 133, 
Fel.. "07. 

Ellis. George. Mod<r,i I'laelival .loinerg. London: B. T. Batsfiu'd. 486 pp., 
I'.tO-J. "(t3. "(14 and "(17. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, Lac. Varnish. X". Y. : Serilmer's. 1878. 

Foster. Edwin W.. Fleineutarg W(nid u-orking. Boston: (xinn and Co. 

Goss. W. F. M., Bench Work in Wood. Boston: Ginn and Co. 1887 and lOOo. 

Grillith. Ira S.. Essentials of Wood uoiking. Peoria 111.: Manual Arts Press. 
liKIS. 

Hanunachcr. Schlcmmer & Co.. 7'oo/.s. Catalo,«r Xo. 3.-)ri. X'. Y. 1!)0S. 

Hanimacher Schlcmmer A Co.. Cabinet Hardnare. Catalog' Xo. lol. X. Y. 

l!t()4. 
llodiison. Fred T., 77/( I ii-lo-d<ili llanhrood Finishir. Chicago: Frc<l J. 

Drake and Co. l'.H)4. 
llodi;>on Fred T. The Carpenter's Slat S(iuare and Its I'.^es. X. Y. : In- 
dustrial Pnhlishin-- Co. 1880. 
Hovey-King, .Mvin, The Lumber Industry of the I'acifie Coast. Review of 
Iferieus. 27: 317. .Mr,. "((3. 



GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 5 

Hulbert, W. H., The Lumber Jack and His Job. OiUlook, 76: 801, Ap. 2, '04. 
International Correspondence School, The Bnildiiui Trades Pocketbook. 

Scranton, Pa. International Textbook Co. -ind edition. 1905. 
International Eneyelopedia. Lac-I nscct, VaDiisli. X. Y. : Dodd, Mead and 

Co. 1902-1904. 
Jones, J. E., Lumberhui in tJic XorfJiii-c.si . ('osmoiioJitan, 15: 03, May 1893. 
Larsson. Gustaf, FAemenhuji S/ui/d mi, I WliUtUiKj. N. Y. : Silver, Burdett & 

Co. 1906. 
Maire, F., The Modern Wood Finisher. Chicago: Press of the Western 

Painter. 
Munn, M. J.. Great Industries of the I . S. — Lumber. ('osmopoUtan, 37: 441, 

Aug. '04. 
Murray, M. \V.. Froblems in \Voo<l-irorkin<i. Peoria. 111.: Manual Arts 

Press. 1905. 
Murray, M. W., The Manual Traiiiin;/ Room and Its Fiiuipiiient. Year Book 

of the Council of tSiiperrisors fur 19(!(). ])p. 09-S(i. 
Park. Joseph C. Educational Woodirorkiiifi for t^chool and Home. The 

]\lacniillan Co.. 1908. 
Pinchot. Clifford, A Primer of Forest ri/. Parts I and II, U. S. i:)ept. of 

Agric. For. Serv. Bull. Xo. 24. 1899 and 1905. 
Purfield. H. T.. The Length of Xails. Wood Craft. 5: 181. 8p. •()('.. 
Rivingston. see South Kensington Council on Education. 

Rouillion. Louis. Fcouomies of Manual Training. X. Y. : The Derry Col- 
lard Company. 1905. 
Roth, Filibert. A First Hook of Forest ri/. Boston: Ginn & Co. 1902. 
Sargent & Co., ^tandaid Steel Stjuares. Xew Haven. Conn. 
Seaton. Geo. A.. .1 ('lamp for t'se at the (Irindstone. Woodcraft, 6: 90. 

Jan., '07. 
Selden. F. IL. Flementaii/ Woodirork. X. Y.: Rand, McXally & Co. 1901). 
Siokels. Ivin. Exercises in Woodirorkiiif/. X. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. 1889. 
Smith. K.. Lumberinf/ bii Machinerii. World's Work, 7: 4435, Feb. '04. 
Smith, R. H.. Cutting Tools. London: Cassell & Co. 1884. 
South Kensington Council on Education, Xoles on linil'ling Construction. 

3 vols. London: Rivington. 1883-1889. 
Standage, H. C, Glues aud Cements for the Use of Woodirnrkers. Wood 

Craft, 7: 48. May, "07. 
Tate. James M.. Training in Wood Work-. Minneapolis: X'orth Western 

School Supply Co. About 1905. 
Trout. W. H., The Modern Hair Mill. Cassier's Magazine. 11: 83-95, 184-195, 

Dec. ■9(i and .Ian. '97. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture Forest Serricc Classified List of I'uhlicMions. 
Forest Service Bulletins: 

No. 10. Filibert, Roth. Timber. 1S95. 

X'o. 34. Wm. F. Fox, A Hi.'itorg of the Lumber fndustrg in the State of 
New York, 1902. 

Xo. 41. Hermann von Schrenk. Seasoning of Tiinlicr. 1903. 



6 HANDWORK IX AVOOD. 

\'aii Deiison. I'liiiton S., Mcllnxls of Wuud FiiiiHliiiuj. Mdinial Traininy May- 

(iziuc. li: il-S. Jan. '05. 
Van Deiiseii. Cliiitoii S.. Lojif/ii/n in the Sniifli. Mniiinil Tniiuing Magazine, 

1: 93. -laii. "(Kl. 
Wlioeler. C. (;.. WcKnlirorLinii for H(<iiiiiirrs. N. Y.: G. P. I'litnam's Sons. 

18!)!). 
White, Stewart Kdwaid. The Blazed Trail. N. Y.: McCluie, Phillips & Co. 

1904. 
White, Stewart Edward. From Forest to Hair Mill, ■/iniior Mtntseij, 10: 

■M;2. .Te. "01. 
Aiiiin\ iiious. 

Xails. Wood Craft, .i : 103. .11. '(Mi. 

A Drji-Kiht of I'ronn.ssirr Sti/lc. Wood Craft, 0: 31, Nov. "06. 
LunihcriiKi in Louisiana. Wood Craft, 4: 55, Nov. "05. 
The Lac Indiislry of A.^sani. Jonrnal of the Society of .irt.s. 49: 192. Feb. 

8. "01. 



Chapter I. 



LOGGING. 



The rough and ready methods coninioii in American logging oper- 
ations are the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply, 
partly of the fear of tire and the avoidance of taxes, partly of an 
eagerness to get rich qnick. Most of the logging has been done on 
privately owned land or on shamelessly stolen public land, and the 
Inmberman had no further interest in the forest than to lumber it 
expeditiously. 

Preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps. 
First of all is landloohing. This includes the survey of the forest 






Fig-. 1. Making' a Valuation Survey 



land for the purpose of locating good tindjer. Fig. 1. Most of the 
woodland has previously been roughly surveyed by the government 
and maps made indicating which parts are private land and which 
are still held by the government. The boundaries of townships, sec- 
tions, quaitcr sections, eighties, forties, etc., are indicated by "blazes"' 

7 



8 



IIAXDAVOBK IN WOOD. 



on trees, Fig. 2, so that the "cruiser" or "looker" as he goes thru the 
woods can identify them with those on his oil paper map. The cruiser 

also studies tlie kinds and char- 
acter of tlie trees, the contour of 
the ground, the proximity to 
streams. — all with the view to 
marketing tlie product. Acting 
on the infonuation thus gained 
hy the cruiser, the lumberman 
]nirchases his sections at the 
[)ropor hind office, or if he is 
less scrupulous, buys only 
enough to serve as a basis for 
operations. r]normous fortunes 
have been made by timber 
thieves, now respectable meni- 
l)ers of the community. As a fur- 
tlu'r ])i'cliiiiinary step to lum- 
bering itscir. tlu' tofc road and 
(■ami) '^^"*^ Iniilt. The tote road 
is a rough lond on wliich su})- 
])lies for crew and cattle can be 
taken to camp from civilization. 




Blazes" on Trees 



It is barely passahlc for a team and a wa.udn. but it serves its purpo.se, and 
over it come more men and horses, lumber for the floors and roofs of the shan- 
ties and for the rude ])ieces of furniture that will be needed, tarred paper to 
make the roofs tit;ht. a few glazed window sashes, a huge range and a 
number of box stoves, dishes and kitchen utensils, a little stock of goods 
for the van. blankets by tlie dozen and score, and countless boxes and bar- 
rels and bags of provisions.^ 

The camp itself, Fig. 3, is built of logs, roofed with plank, cov- 
ered with heavy tar pajier, and dimly lighted. There are usually 
five buihlings, — the men's camp, the cook camp, the office, the barn, 
and the blacksmith's sliop. ]\lany camps accommodate from eighty 
io one hundred men. Tlie men's camp is filled with bunks and is 
heated by a stove and in general roughly furnished. Cooking and 
eating are done in the cook camp, where the cook and his assistant, 
the "cookee," sleep. The office is occupied by the foreman, log-scal- 

'Hulbert: The Lunil)er Jack; Oullook, 7o: >S01. April 2, H)4. 



LOGGING. 



ers and clerks. Here the books and accounts are kept, and here is 
the "van/" stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate 
needs of the lumber jacks. 




Fig-- 3. Winter 'Loirgimr Camp. Itasco County, Minnesota 



Before Avinter sets in the main road is built, Fig. 15, p. 1^, very 
carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway 
siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated. 
This road has to he as wide as a city street, 25 feet. The route is 
carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible. Much 
labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling up 
with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous 
loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when 
needed later, its good condition is of first importance. This main 
road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road. 

At inteivals alongside the main road, small squares called sJiid- 
loays are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks, 
"skids," are laid at right angles to the road. On these the logs, when 
cut later, are to be piled. Back from the skidways into the woods 
the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called dray roads or travoy 
roads,- — mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of 
horses to pull a log thru. 

All these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. The 
tools commonly used in logging are shown in Fig. 4. When every- 
thing is ready for felling, the "fitter' goes ahead marling each tree 
to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a 
notch on that side. Then come the sawyers in pairs. Fig. 5. First 



10 



HAXDWOKK IX A\ OOD. 



Q 



w 







BILL HOOr\ 



QAPHT MOOh, 



WCOQE 






CROSb-COT SAW 



fl 



CROWBAR. 



Fijr. -•• Tools used in hogifing. 

tlicy clioi) a (Ico)) n'Msli on tlic side of tlie tii-e toward wliicli it is to 
J'all. and tlicn from the o]i|)o>itc :^id(' Ix'.u'iii cuttino' wiili a long, 
'riittlc-tootli. crosscnt-saw. Tln' saw is a long, Hcxihlf i-il)l)oii of 
steel, witli handles so allixcd to cacli end that they can lie icnioxcd 
easil\'. The cut is made on the pnlling stioke. and hence the keid' 
can he \rv\ nai'iow. As soon as the saw is well within the ti'Uid<. 
the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kei'f hehind it, ])artly to keep 
tlie weigid of tlie trunk' fi'om hinding the saw, and partly t(t direct 
its fall. 'I'heii the saw is judleil hack and forth, and the wedges 



LOGGING. 



11 



driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that 
drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. Just as the tree 
is ready to go over, the saw han- 
dle at one end is unhooked and 
the saw pulled out at the other 
side. "Timber I,"" the men cry 
out as a warning to any working 
near by, for the tree has begun 
to lean slightly. Then with a 
hastening rush the top whistles 
thru the air, and tears thru the 
branches of other trees, and the 
trunk with a tremendous crash 
strikes the ground. Even hard- 
ened loggers can hardly keep 
from shouting, so impressive is 
the sight of a falling giant tree. 
All this seems simple enough 
in outline, but the actual execu- 
tion requires considerable skill. 
Trees seldom stand quite vertical, 
there is danger of lodging in some other tiee in thick woods, and it 
is therefore necessaiT to throw trees quite exactly. Some men become 
so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the 




Fig-. 5. Felling Red Spruce with a Saw. 
Adirondack Mountains, New York. 




Fig-. 6. Sawing Logs into Lengths. 



12 



llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 



ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul. 

On the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees. 

]\Iost of them come 
fjom "side winders," 
i. e., the falling of 
smaller trees struck by 
(he felled trees. 

After "falling" a 
tree, the sawyers mark 
olT and saw the trunk 
into log lengths. Fig. 
6. paying due attention 
to the necessity of 
;i\iii(ling knots, forks, 
and rotten places, so 
that some of the logs 
are eighteen feet, some 
sixteen feet, some four- 
teen feet, and some only 

twelve feet in lengi:h. Meanwhile the swam]>ei's trim otf the liranches, 

Fig. 7, a job requiring no little skill, in ordei' that the trunk may l)e 

sliaved close ])ut not gashed. 




Fig. 7. Trimming' off Branches of Spruce 
Adirondack Mountains, New Yoriv. 




I'Mtr- ^- llaulinfT Spruce Logrs to llu- Ski<l 
Adirotidack Mountains, New '^'ork. 



LOGGIXG. 



13 



This finishes the second group of operations, the felling. Xext 
the logs are dragged out to the dray roads, Fig. 8. A heavy pair of 
tongs, like ice-tongs, is attached to one end, and the log is snaked 
out hy horses to the skidway. If the log is very heavy, one end is 
put on a dray. By one way or another the log is dragged out and 
across the two parallel skids, on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to 
the end of skids toward the road way. If other logs already occupy 
the skids, each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier. As the 
pile grows higher, each log is "decked," that is, rol'ed up parallel 
poles laid slanting up the face of the pile, by means of a chain passed 
under and over the log and back over the pile. Fig. 11. A horse 
hitched to the end of the chain hau's up the log, which is guided by 
the "send-up men" with their cant-hooks. 

Once piled the logs are ''scaled," that is measured in oider to 
compute the number of hoard feet in them. Fig. 9. The scaler gen- 
eral'y has an 
assistant. for 
logs in large 
piles must be 
measured a t 
both ends in 
order to deter- 
mine which is 
the top. the 
body of the log 
being out of 
sight. When 
uieasured each 
end of the log 
is stamped with 

a hammer with the owner's mark, by which it can afterward be 
identified. Here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue 
until deep snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins. 

For this the main road is especially prepared. First the road is 
carefully ploived with an immense Y plow, weighted down by logs. 
To the plow are attached fans. Only an inch or two of snow is ^eft 
on the ground by this plow, which is followed by another special 
plow to gouge the ruts, and by a gang of "road monkeys" who clear 




ritr ''I ' scaliu.' 



14 



iiaxd\voi;k ix wood. 



the road tlioroly. Then follows an immense tank set on runners and 
holding perhaps seventy-five barrels of water, and so arranged as to 
flood the road from holes in the bottom of the tank, a sort of roush 




Fiy. 10. Makiiiiir an Ice Koail 



road sprinkler. Fig. t(t. This sprinkler goes over the road again 
and again nntil the road is covered hv a clear, solid sheet of ice often 




FiU^.n. DocKiny- Lojj.s oil Skidway. 



LOGGING. 



1: 



two feet thick, extending from the skichvays to the banking grounds. 
This ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging. Once 
iinished, these roads are heantiful pieces of construction with deep, 
clear ruts. They have to be constantly watched and repaired, 
and this is the work of the "road monkeys." If possible the road 




Fig-. 12. Loading a Sled from a Skidway. 



has been made entirely with down grades but some of these are 
so steep that a man must be prepared with sand or hay to check too 
headlong a descent. 

When all is ready the sleigh haul begins. Piling on the sleighs 
or bobs. Fig. 12, is similar to piling on the skidways, l)ut more diffi- 
cult, for the load has to be 
carefully balanced, Fig. 13. 

Chains bind the loads but the 

piling is only too apt to be 

defective, and the whole load 
"squash out'' with a rush. It 

is a time of feverish activity. 
The sprinklers are at work till 
after midnight, the loaders are 

out long before daylight. The 

blacksmith is l)usy with re- 

11 T 1 1 Fig. 13. A Load of Logs, 

pairs, the road monkeys work FlaiUead County, Montana. 




16 



IIAXDWOIJK IN WOOD. 



oveitime, and the cook works all tlic time ••Kvcivljody works." The 
haul itself is full of cxriteiiifiit. 'i'lic [x.ndcrous load of logs, weigh- 
ing anywlii're fioui eight to thirty-tive tons has to be conducted largely 
by its own nionientuni down this giassy road. If a horse fall noth- 
ing can save its life. If the runners get out of the ruts, the whole 
load, driver aiul all. is likely to he u])set. It is an extremely hazard- 
ous job. Fig. 1 •"").- 

As t'ach load come- down to the hinilriinj </rouiuls. Fig. 14. or log 
(lum|). it is stopped opposite long parallel skids. The wrapping chains 

are unhooked 
and the lower 
log on the skid 
?ide is worked 
out with cant- 
hooks till the 
whole load Hat- 
tens out. The 
logs are then 
"ilecked'' o n 
immense piles, 
sometimes a 

mile loug and tilling tbe whole river fiom bank to bank. A decking 
cliain oOO feet long is sometimes required to lol] the logs to their 
proper places. Heic the logs rest till the spidng freshets come. Tliis 
completes the tiansportation l)v lamk 

With the coming of the spring thaw, tbe river bed is filled with 
a freshet of water which seizes and canies tlie logs down stream. 
Many on the l)a]d<s. however, have to be started on their wav, and this 
is called "■'breaking out the roll ways." Thev often stai't on their 
water journey with a gi'eat crash. 

Xow comes tJic drive, an arduous and often ])eri!ous task. Some 
of tbe men are stationed along the sIkhcs to prevent the logs from 
lodging oi' lloating iido bjiys or setbacks. Some stand at the heads 
of bars or islands, wbeie witb pike ]wles thev shove off the logs that 
might sto]) there and form a jam: oiheis follow "'sacking the rear" 
1o clean out such logs as may have become sti'andeil. This '^'^sackino" 
ibe rear" takes most of tbe time. F'ig. Ki. Wbil(> '•on the di'ive" 
men often work fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to 
their waists in ice water. Their boots are shod with "caulks." or 




Fiy. "4. ri.TiiKintr Grounds. 



LOGGING. 



17 




Fi?.l5. I'he Sleigh Haul. 




Fig-. 16. Sacking the Rear. 



- 18 



UAXDWORK IX AVOOD. 



spikes, to keep them fiom slipping on the logs, and they carry either 
pike poles or peaveys, Fig. 17. The latter are similar to cant-hooks, 

except that 




,1 



the y have 
sharp pikes at 
their ends. So 
armed, they 
have to "ride 
any kind of a 
log in any 
water, to pro- 
pel a log hy 
jumping on it. 
hy rolling it 
s{|iiiricl fash- 
ion with the 
feet, l)y punt- 



Fig-. 17. hog Driving on the Ausable River. 



ing it as one 
would a ca- 
noe; to he skilful in pushing, pryiiig, and poling other logs from the 
quarter deck of the same cranky craft."' Altho the logs are carried 
by the river, they have to be "driven'' with amazing skill and bravery. 
The climax of hardship and courage is reached when a "jam'' is 
formed. Fig. 18. Sometimes one or two logs are caught in such 
a wav as to he locked or jammed ami then soon other logs begin 
to accumulate behind them, till the wliole river is full of a seemingly 
inextricable mass. Sometimes these jams can be loosened by being- 
pulled apart, one log at a time. A hundred men can pull out an 
amazing nmnher of logs in a day. The problem always is to set free 
or eut out certain "key'' logs, which lock the whole mass. Following 
is a description l)y Stewart Edward White of the breaking of such 
a jam : 

The Clew were workinu (Icspcrately. Down on tlic heap sonu-wiiero. two- 
lo<4'S were crossed in such a manner as to locl< the wliole. They son^ht 
those logs. 

Thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys 
into the soft pine: jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding the great logs from 
their ])laces. Thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men 
coolly ])ickcd out and set adrift one by one. the timbers not inextricably 
indiedded. From time 1o time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even 



LOGGING. 



19 



moved a foot or two ; but always the practised rivermen, after a glance, 
bent more eagerly to their work. " " * Suddenly the six men below the 
jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their bodies, they 
jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * * 




Fig-. 18. Log- Jam. Adirondack Mountain*, New York. 



In the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself 
from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. ■" "" "" The crew 
redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at 
random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. A sharp crack 
exploded immediately underneath. There could no longer exist any doubt 
as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. Then in silence a 
log shifted — in silence and slowly — but with irresistible force * * * other 
logs in all directions up-ended. •» * * 

Then all at once down by the face something crashed, the entire stream 
became alive. It hissed and roared, it shrieked, groaned, and grumbled. At 
first slowly, then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted in- 
ward and forward and downward; until it caught the fierce rush of the 
freshet and shot out from under the jam. Far up-stream, bristling and 
formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * * 

Then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam and 
spray, thrvi the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the flood's hurrying, 
thru the leap of destructioii, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the 
shore. 

Sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and spe- 
cial rigging devised to let the men do"\ra to their dangerous task and 
more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes. 



20 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 




Fi<r. 20 Splash-Dam. 




F iff. 21. LofTS in liooni. Clous Falls, New York. 



LOGGING. 



21 



In ease sueli efforts are unavailing, it is necessary to "shoot" the 
jam with dynamite. Another device resorted to where the supply of 
water is insufficient is the splash-dam. Fig. 30. The object is to 
make the operator independent of freshets, by accumulating a head 
of water and then, by lifting the gates, creating an artificial freshet, 
sufficient to float the timber down stream. 




Fiy. 22. A Sorting- Jack. 

Thus by one means and another, the logs are driven along until 
caught by a boom, Fig. 21. which consists of a chain of logs stretched 
across the river, usually at a mill. Since the river is a common 
carrier, the drives of a number of logging companies may float into 
the mill pond together. But each log is stamped on both ends, so 
that it can be sorted out. Fig. 23, and sent into the boom of its owner. 



MECHANICAL METHODS IN LUMBERING. 

The operations described above are those common in the luml^er 
regions of the northeast and the Lake States. But special conditions 
produce special methods. A very effective device where streams are 
small is the flume. Fig. 23. This is a long wooden trough thru 
which water is led, and the logs floated end on. It is sometimes many 
miles long: in one case in California twentv-five miles. 



22 



UAXDWORK IX WOOD. 



In the Soutli where there is no snow, logs are hirgely brought out 
to the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled 
trucks, called slip-tongue carts. draAvn by mules, Fig. 24. The 
wheels are nearly eio-ht feet in diameter. 




Fig-. 23. Six Mik- Flume. Adirondack Mountains. New Ymk. 

Soinc kinds (if wood ai'o so heavy that they will not iloat at a'l, 
and some sink so readily that it does not ])ay to transport tliem by 
river. In such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to. 

On the Paciiic coast, where the forests aie dense, the trees of en(n'- 
mous size, and no ice road is possilde, still othei' special methods have 
been devised. On so great a scale are the operations conducted that 
they nuiy properly he called engineering feats. Consider for a mo- 
ment the size of the trees; red ilr ranges from five to fifteen feet in 
diameter, is commonly two hundred fifty feet high, and sometimes 
three hundred twenty-five feet high. The logs are commonly cut 
tweirty-four feet long, and such iogs often weigh thirtv to forty tons 




Fip. 24. Hauling Logs by Mul 



LOGGING. 



23 




Fi^"-. 25. A Twenty-Five Foot Saw used toi CrossLUtiiiif,'- Bii>- Lolt- 



eaeh, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred 
fifty tons. The logging of such trees requires special appliances. 
Until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transpor- 
tation, the felling still being done by hand with very long saws, Fig. 
25, l)ut now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly 
done l)v machinerv. 




Fig. 2i). Hauling Big^ hogs by Donkey Enyme. 



24 HAXDWOUK IX WOOD. 

To work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine 
mounted upon a truck whicli can be talcen readily from place to 
place. As the maximum power recjuired is not over ten-horse-power, 
the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. The saw 
can he adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence 
is used for sawing into lengths as well as tor felling. 

FiiUiiKj Iirds. Since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is 
such that if the impact of its fall he not gradually checked the force 
with wliicli it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its 
fall is preparc<l l)y the swauipeis. Usually piles of l)rush arc placed 
as buffers along tlie "■falling line" so that the ti'unk will strike these. 
If the tree stands on the hill .-idc if is thio\\ii up hil . in order to 
shorten tlie fall. 

After tlie felling comes the triuuning of f)iani-hes and knots and 
"rossing"" of bark, to lessen the friction in sliding along the skidway. 

The sl-idinuj. By the skidway in the Puget Sound region is 
meant a corduroy road. This is constructed of tiunks of trees rang- 
ing from a foot to two feet in diameter. These ai'e "rossed." that is. 
stripped of their liark and laid across the road, where they are held 
in ])lace bv yv^ji^ (hiven into the ground, and by strips s})iked upon 
the to])S of the logs. If possible thi'y are laid in swampy places to 
keep the surface damp and slipi)ery. At turns in the road, pulleys 
are hung, thru M-hich the hauling cables pass. The skidway runs to 
the I'ailway siding or water's edge. ()ver these skidways the logs are 
hauled out bv various means. Foriuerly "strings"" of oxen or Perch- 
eroti horses w^^vr used, but they ai'e now largely superseded by some 
foi'ui of donkey engine. Fig. 2(). These are placed at the center of 
a "yai'd."" 

"^'ai'ding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by 
means of these donkey engines. Attached to the donkey engine are 
two druuis. one for the direct cal)le. three-foui'ths to one inch in di- 
aiueter and often half a mile long, to haul in the logs, the other for 
the siiiallei' let urn cable, twice as long as the direct cable and used 
to haid liaek the direct eable. At the uppi'r end of the skidway, when 
the logs are I'eadv to be taken to the railway or l)ooiiie(l, they are 
fasteued togethei'. end to end. in "tuiiis"" of four or iu(u-e. The 
dii'ect cable is attached to the fi-oiit of the *"turn". and the return 
cable to the rear end. I>y winding the direct cable on its drum, the 
"turn"' is hauled iri. The retui'U cable is used to haul back the end 



LOGGING. 



25 



of the direct cable, and also, in case of a jam, to pull back and 
straighten out the turn. Instead of a return cable a horse is often 
used to haul out the direct cable. Signaling from the upjjer end of 
the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the don- 
key's whistle, by an electric bell, or by telephone. 

Sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling 
a turn of logs to within reacli of tlie next one, which passes it on to 
the next until the sidino- is reached. 




Fig-. 



11 SkidiUi at Work. Grant Count}-, 
Arkansas. 



Wheic there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be 
stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it. 

In the South a complicated machine called a steam skidder, Fig. 
27, equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding 
in ' the logs and then for loading them on the cars. It is itself 
mounted on a flat car. 

An improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is 
widely used both on the Pacific coast and of late in the Lake Su- 
perior region. It is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. Its 
most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow 
flat cars to run underneath it. This feat is accomplished thus : A 
device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of 
coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. Then steel 
legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which 



26 



IIAXDWOTiK IX WOOD. 



are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties. 
The tniclv of the locomotive is then folded np under it out of the 
way and cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of 
clearance. The derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs 




l"'i<f. 2S Log Train. Humboldt County, Calitoriiia. 



being firmly fastened. \\'heii ancliored the eugiiie can l)e used either 
for skidding or loading. For skidding, there are two eables, one 
being run out while the other is being wound on its drum. 

In loading, the machine is located so that the empty ear will be 
diieetly in front of it. and then the logs are lifted up and placed on 
the car by the derrick. AMien the car is loaded the machine can 
either mow on to the next car. or pull it under itself into p^ace. 
With the help of four men it can load from I'^S.OOO to 150,000 feet 
of timber in a day. By means of the cable it can make up a train, 
and then by loweiing the truck and raising the legs out of the way. 
it is converted into a locomotive and haids tbe train away to the mill 
oi' I'ailway station at tJie rate of three or four miles at houi'. 

As forests are cut away along the water courses, railways have to 
be resoi'ted to more and nrore, Fig. 28. This has had a stimulative 
ell'ect on the logging business, for now the logger is independent of the 
snow. On account ol' the slee|) grades and sharp curves often necessary 
in logging railways, a geared loi'Oiiiotive is sonu^times used, Fig. 29. 
Jt can haul a train of twenty loaded cais up a twelve per cent 
grade. Tbe geared engine has also l)cen used as a substitute for 
caldc powci'. in "yai'ding"' operations. 'I'lic •"turns'" of logs are di'awn 



LOGGING. 



27 




Fif. 30. Giant Raft. In the bai-kfrrouiid is a completed raft; 
in the forejJ-round a cradle m \\ hich a raft is being- built. 



28 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



over the ground between the rails, being fastened to the rear of the 
eno-ine by hook and cable. This has proved to be a very economical 
use of power and plant. 

Another method of traction where the woodland is open enough 
is with a traction engine. The ones emi)loycd have sixty to one 
hundicd horse power. The great logs may be jdaced on wood rollers, 
as a house is when move(h or the l(\os may be hauled in on a low 
truck with broad wheels. Tlu' •"tractor"" hauls the log direct to the 
railway if the (lislaiicc is not t(^o gieat. 




Fiy. 31. Snow Locomotive. Takes the place of 12 teamsters 
and 12 horses. Minnesota. 



In Northeren Michigan a "snow Nx-oniotive."' Fig. 31, is coming 
into use, which has tremendous tractive powei", hauling one hundred 
to one hundred fifty tons of lunibci' over snow or ice. It moves on 
runnel s. but there is between them a large cylinder anned with teeth. 
This cylinder can be raised or lowered by the o])erator as it moves 
over the suiface of the ground. The teeth catch in the snow or ice, 
and since the cyliiulei' is heated l)y the exhaust steam, it melts and 
packs the snow for the trucks following it. The drum is six feet in 
diameter, with walls an inch and a half thick, and it weighs seven 
tons. It is use<l in all sorts of jdaees where horses cannot go. as in 
swamps, and by suhstitiding A\heels foi- nmneis it has even been 
used on sand. 

Ill the Canadian lakes there has been devised a (|iieer cieature 
called an "alligator," a small and heavily equijiped vessel I'm- hauling 
the logs thru the lakes. When its o]ierations in one lake are llnislied, 
a wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe 
anchorage, the ca])stan on its f(M-ward deck is revolved liy steam and 
the "alligator"" hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next 
la]<e and beoins woik there. 



LOGGING. 29 

The greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant 
raft, Fig. 30. When such a raft is made up, logs of uniform length 
are placed together, the width of the raft being from sixty to one 
hundred feet and its length, one thousand feet or more. It may con- 
tain a million board feet of timber. The different sections are placed 
end to end, and long boom sticks, i. e., logs sixty to seventy feet 
long, are. placed around tliem to bind the different sections together, 
and finally the whole mass is heavily chained. Sucli n raft has been 
towed across the Pacific. 

LOGGING. 
References* : 

River Lumbering. 

Pinchot, Primer, II, pp. 40-53. Biuncken. pp. 70-87. 
White, Blazed Trail, pp. 5-15, Munn. Cosmop., 37: 441. 

25, 38-30, 52-53, 63-65, 72- 

85, 91-99, 113-125, 1.34, 181- 

196, 216-220, 257, 268, 320- 

343, 355, 365 ff. 
For. Bull, No. 34, pp. 33-41. Roth, First Bool-, pp. 133-174. 

Fox. 
White, Jan. Mun. 10: 362. Hovey-King. Rer. of Ren.. 27: 317. 

Hulbert, Outl., 76; 801. -Jones, Cosmop. 15: 63. 

Wood Craft, 4: 55. Price, World's Work, 5: 3207. 

Smith, K., World's Worl:, 7: For. Bull. Xo. 61. 

4435. 
Mechanical Methods, 

World's Work, 7: 4435. Cassier, 20: 443, April, '06. 

Oufl. 76: 812. Cosmop., 37: 445. 

Briincken. p. 86. Rev. of Rev. 28: 319. 



'For general bibliography see page 4. 



('iiAi"n:i; II. 

- SAW.AIILLlXCi. 

Tlie |)i'iiK-i|);il saws in a mill are of tlnre Idmls. the cireiilav. Fig. 
32, the gang. Fig. oo, and the hand. Fig. 'M. The ciieuhir-saw, tho 
very rapid, is the most wasteful Ijeeause of tlie wide kerf, and of 
course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf. 

. ' The waste in sawdust is aliont 

one-fifth of the log. In order 
to lessen this amount two 
smaller saws, one hung directly 
al)()\e the other, have heen used. 
One saws the lower half of the 
log and the other the u})per 
hair. In this way, it is possihle 
to cut veiy Jai'ge logs with the 
ciiculai'-saw and with less waste. 
The circulai'-saw is not a per- 
fi'ctly flat disc-, hut when at rest 
is slightly convex on one side 
and conca\-e on the other. This 
fullness can he ])uslied l)ack and 
Forth as can the linttom of an 
oil-can. When moving at a high 
rate of speed, hdwevcr. the saw flattens itself hv centrifugal force. 
This eiiahlcs it to cut straight with gicat ac-cuiacy. 

A gang-saw is simply a series of stiaight saw-hlades set in a ver- 
tical frauu'. '^riiis has a recipi'ocating mot inn. enahling it to cut a 
log into a number of ho'irds at one tiuie. It has this drawl)ack, tliat 
il must cut the size of luniher f(U' which it is set: that is, the sawyer 
has no choice in cutliug tlie thickness, hut it is \ciy economical, wast- 
ing oidy one-eighth of ihe log in sawdust. A special form is the floor- 
ing gang. II consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart, 
"^riiick |)lanks ai'c run thru it to saw up llooring. 

30 




Fig. 32. Double Circular-Saw and Carruij^e. 



SAWMILLIXG. 



31 



The band-saw is fast displacing the otlier two, -wherever it can 
be used. It cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow. When 
first used ii. couhl not be depended upon to cut straight, but b}' util- 
izing the same 
principle that 
is used in tlie 
circular-saw, of 
putting the cut- 
ting edge un- 
der great ten- 
sion by making- 
it s 1 i g h 1 1 y 
shorter than 
the middle of 
tJie saw, it now 
cuts with great 
accuracy. Band- 
saws are now 
made up to 12 
inches wide, 50 
feet long, an ■ • 

lun at the late of 10.000 feet a minute. They are even made with the 
cutting teeth on both edges, so that the log can be sawed both going 
and coming. This idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the 
telescopic band-mill. Fig. 35. In this the entire mechanism carry- 





Fig-. 34. Band-Saw. 



32 



HAXDWOlMv IX WOOD. 



in,o- tlie wheels on which the 
hiiinl-saw revolves can he moved 
iij) and down, so as to bring the 
])()int where the saw leaves the 
iipl)er wheel as close to the top 
of the different sized logs as 
possil)le. 

The nsual modern mill is a 
two story hiiilding. Fig. 37, built 
at a convenient locality both for 
receiving the logs and for ship- 
])ing the hnnber. Whether the 
logs arrive by water or by rail, 
they are, if possible, stored in 
a mill-pond until used in order 
to prevent checking, discolora- 
tion, decay, and worm attack. 
From the pond they are hauled 
up out of the water on to a '\jack-ladder," by means of an endless 
chain. ])rovi(lod with saddles or spurs Avhich engage the logs and 




Fig. 



)5. Uoiible-Cuixing- Telescopic iSand- 
Mill. Mill in raised position for 
larjire log. 




l.ii 1<-L,adder, with Endless i 



SAAVMILLING. 



33 




34 



IIAXDWOKK IN WOOD. 




Fig-. 38. Loy-FlipiJer. 



<!ia\v tlu'iii u\) into tlio sec-oiul stow on to the h)g .•slip. Fig. 3(3. 
After the logs have entered the mill, thev are inspected for stones 

lodged in the bark, and for spikes left by the river men, and then 

measured. I'nder the log- 
sli]) is tlie steam "flipper"' 
oi' "kickci'," Fig. 38, by means 
of wliicli the sealer or his as- 
^nf 'm^ ' "•- •^''^'^- ^i'^BmiII' sistant. tlirowing a lever, causes 

:^^- ^p . --. ;'^J||hhp the log to [)(■ kicked over to one 

side or the other, on to the log- 
dt<-k. an inclined floor sloping 
toward the saw-can iage. Down 
this the log loljs until sto])ped 
bv a log-stop, or log-loatler. Fig. 
3!l, a doul)h'-ai nu'd ])rojection. 
which pieveiits it from lol ing 
on the carriage till wanted. 

This stop is also worki'd hy steam. l>y letting the steam into the 

cvlinder which contiols it, one log is voIUmI over on the cai'iiage and 

the next one held. The log on the carriage is at once "dogged. "" that 

is, clamped tight hy iion dogs, the carriage is set for tlu' proper cut. 

and moves forward to the saw 

which cuts otf the first slab. 

The carriage is then •\uigged" 

or reversed. This operation off- 
sets the carriage one-eighth of 

an inch so that tlie log returns 

entirely dear of the saw. In 

the same wav two ov three 1" 

Ixiai'ds are taken otf. the dogs 

are then knocked (Uit, and the 

log canted o\(M- half a revolu- 
tion. This is done by means ol' 

the "steam nigger." Fig. 4tl, a 

long, pel pcndiculai' toothed bar 

which comes up thru tlie lloor, 

engages the log. and lui'ns it 

over till the sawn side comes up 

auainst the knees of the cai'- 




Im','-. 3'i. Logr-Stop nnd Loader. By IftiiiiK- 
sleain into the cyliiiiler, the projectiiiy arm 
revolves, rolliiiir one loi,' over onto the car- 
riatre and liol(linf,>- the iie.xl one till wanted. 



SAW^IILLING. 



35 





riage. The log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards 
are taken off. The log or "stock" as it is now called, is 10", 13", 
l-i", or 16" thick; the "nigger" then gives it a qnarter-turn, leav- 
ing it lying on a sawn side. It is dogged again, and all sawn up 
except enough to make a few boards. 'This last piece is given a half- 
turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees, and it is sawn up. 
Each board as 
it is sawn off 
is thrown by 
the board-flip- 
per or cant-flip- 
per," Fig. 41, 
on to the "live 
rollers," which 
take it to the 
next process. 
Another 1 o g 
conies on the 
carriage a n d 
the process is 
repeated. 

The saw-car- 
riage, Fig. 43. 
i s propelled 
forward and 
back by a pis- 
ton running in 
a long cylinder, 
into either end 
of which steam 
can be turned 
by the operator. 
As the sawn 
boards fall off' the log, they land on "live," that is, revolving rol'ers, 
which carry them along at the rate of 800 to 350 feet a minute. 
Stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever Avanted. 
as at the edger, Fig. 43, or the slasher. From the live rollers the 




Fiff. 40. 'i he Steam Nig-g-er. The toothed bar turns the log 
over into the desired position. 



A "cant" is a squared or partly squared log. 



36 



HANDWOUK IX AVOOD. 




Fig-. 41. Steam Caiil-Flipper. 
Tliis machine is used to 
move cants, timber or lumber 
trom live rollers to g^angs, 
band resaw mills, or else- 
where. The timber is dis- 
charged upon skid rollers, 
as shown, or upon transfer 
chains 



boards are trans- 
ferred automatically, 
Fig. 44, by chains 
running at right an- 
gles to the rollers 
and brought within 
reach of the edger 
man. About one- 
third of the boards 
of a log have rough 
edges, and are called 
"waney." These must 
go thru the edger to 
make their edges 
parallel. The edger 
man works with 
great speed. He sees 
at once what can be 
made out of a board, 

places it in position and runs it thru. From 
the edger the boards are carried to the trim- 
mer, which cuts the length. The lumber- 
man's rule is to "cut so that you can cut 
again." The so-called 16' logs are really Id' 
6". Tbe trimmer. Fig. 45. now trims these 

boards to Ti' 1". so that if desired they can still be cut again. The 
trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length 
according to tlie specifications. 

The l)oards are now graded as to quality 
into No. 1, No. 2, etc.. Fig. 46. 
and run out of the mill, to be 
stacked up in piles. Fig. 47. Big 
timbers go directly from the saw 
nil the rolls to tlie back end of 
ihc mill, where the first end is 
trimmed liy a butting-saw or cut- 
ofF-saw which swings. Fig. 48. 
The tiinhcr is then slioved along 

Fig. 42. Log--Carriag-e, holdinir ,|uarler<-d ,)t\ (lend rolls illld tllC last did 
lofT in position to saw. 





SAWMILLING. 



37 




Fig. 43. Double Gatigr Ed^er. This machine trims olJ the rough edg-e^ 
of the "waiiey" boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine. 




r ft: 






^''-'^^-^X ■■- n 




Ji^'*% 




Fig-. 44. Automatic Steam Transfer for Timber, Lumber aud Slabs. 

The boards are carried along- by tlie cylinders, C C C, until they hit the bumper, B. 

This movement admits steam to the cylinder, CY, which raises the revolving- chains 

or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required. 



38 



HAXDAVORK JN WOOD. 



•a>, ^»^,^A^^^f^•■ 




Fiy. 45. Automatic Gang Luinber-Tiimmer. It may be set to cut autoiiiatically 
to any desired length. 




Fig. 4(1. Lumber Sorting Slied, Virginia, Minnesota 




Fig. 47. Logs and I.unitir. 



SAAVMILLIXG. 



39 




Fig-. 48. Cut-off-Saw. This saw 
trims the ends of timbers. 



trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as sjieeified, and 

shoved ont. 

One of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its 

speed. From the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes 

racing out of the mill, hardly 
I more than a minute may havo 
ela]:sed. 

A large part of the problem 
of sawmilling is the disposal 
of the waste. The first of these 
is the sawdust. In all first 
class mills, this together with 
shavings (if a planing-mill is 
coml)ined) is burned for fuel. 
It is sucked up from the ma- 
chines and carried in large 
tubes to the boiler-room and 
there is mechanically supplied 
to the fires. The slabs, once 

considered as waste, contain much material that is now utilized. 

From the live rolls, on which all the material falls from the main 

band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains, and by another 

set of five rollers to the "slasher," Fig. 50, which consists of a line 

of circular-saws placed 4' 1" 

apart. This slasher cuts u]) the 

slabs into lengths suitable for 

lath or fence-pickets. Fig. 49. Or 

they can be resawn into IG" 

lengths for shingles or fire-wood. 
From the "slasher" the 4' 1" 

lengths are carried on by travel- 
ing platforms, chains, etc., to 

the lath-machines, Fig. 51, where 

they are sawn up, counted as Fig-. 4<'. Ten saw (.anfr Lath Bolter. This 
^ ^ niachuie cuts up material leng-thwise 

sawn, bound in bundles of 100, imoiaths. 

trimmed to exactly 4' in length 

and sent off to be stored. The shingle bolts are picked off the mov- 
ing platforms by men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine. Fig. 
52. where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to 




40 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 




Fig. 50. Slab-Slasher. This machine cuts up the slabs into leiijjfths suitable 
for lath or fence-pickets. 



SAWMILLING. 



41 



be packed. Shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise 
imperfect logs. 

Of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or "'liog,'' Fig. 
53, which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for 




Figr. 51. Combination Lath-Binder 
and Trimmer. With this macliine tlie op- 
erator can trim the bnndles of lath, sinipU' 
bj' tilting' the pacKingr frame over from him 
causing the bundles to pass between the 
saws, thereb3- trimming both ends at one 
movement. 




Fig. 52. Hand Shinsrle-Machine 

This machine is used in Sawmills in which 

it is desired to utilize slabs and trimming's 

by sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw 

shingles from prepared bolts. 



fuel to suiDplement the sawdust if necessary. Band-saws make so 
little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary. 

If there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the 
scrap-pile, Fig. 54, or to the "consumer," the tall stack shown in Fig. 
37, see p. 33. 

Boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn," i. e., they 
are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. By 
this process, only the central boards would be radial or "rift" boards. 

But, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. They warp 
less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. Yel- 
low pine flooring that is rift- 
sawn is more valuable than 
slash-sawn, because the edge 
of the annual rings makes a 
more even grain. Fig. 55. Where 
slash-grained flooring is used, 
the boards should be laid so 
that the outside of each board 

will be up in order that the in- ^'^,:^l Edging Grinder or Hog Itcutsany 

^ kind of wood into coarse or fine chips 

ner rings mav not "shell out."' suitable to be handled by 

<^ - chain conveyor or blower. 




42 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



In sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first 
^'quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is 
desired. There are various methods of cutting quarteied logs, as 
illustrated in Fig. 5G. 

In making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they 
be cut radially in the log. in order that the staves be as non-perme- 
able to water as |)0ssi'ble. 




Fig-. 54. S. lan-l'ili-. OsciUa, Georgia. 




Fiff. 55. Slash Grain and Conib-(iraiii Flooring 



SAWMILLING. 



43 




7- /a 

Fig-. 50. Methods of S .wing Quartered Losrs. 



SAWMILLING. 



Eeferences : * 

Trout, Gassier 11: 83, 184. 
Woodcraft 5: 5(3. May '06. 



■For giiioral l)il)liogiapli_v see ]\ 4. 



44 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 




Chapter III. 
SEASONING. 

The seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. It re- 
duces weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume 
after it is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. 
Decay can also he prevented hy suhmergence and hiirying, if hy so 
doing logs are kept from fungal attacks. The piles of the Swiss 
Lake dwellings, which are in a state of good preservation, are of 
jn'ehistoric age. Wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron 
under water. Rut for almost all purposes wDod has to l)e dried in 
order to he preserved. The wood is cut up, when green, to as thin 
pieces as will be convenient for its use later, for the rate of drying- 
depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece, an inch hoard 
drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank, and more 
than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber. 

There are various methods of seasoning: 

(T) Natural or air-seasoning is the most c(unmon, and in some 
respects the best. In this method, the wood is carefully and reg- 
ularly piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as pos- 
sible from sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides 
of the boards, Fig. 47, see p. 38. To accomplish this, "sticking" is 
employed, i. e., strips of wood are' placed crosswise close to the ends 
and at intervals between the boards. In this way the weight of the 
superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warpirrg. The 
pile is skidded a foot or two off the grourrd and is protected above by a 
roof made of boards so laid that the raiir wi'l drain off. 

Fire-Avood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air 
spaces which facilitate ignition, but luml)er needs to be slowly dried 
in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the 
change of form and the wood check as little as possible. Good air- 
drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better. 

45 



46 IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 

I (•?) Kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid pro- 
cess than air-seasoning and is now in common use, Fig. 57. Tlie 
drying is also more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from 
10^/c to 20^, of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than 
S^f as it comes from the kiln. It will, however, reabsorb some 
iiioistuie from the air. wiien exposed to it. 

The wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries and 
shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad- 
leaved trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without previous 
air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time. 

Oak is the most diihcult wood to dry properly. When it and 
other hardwoods are ra])idly dried witlioiit sutficient surrounding 
moisture, the wood "■case-hardens,"" tliat is. the outer part diies and 
shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this 
forms a sliell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around 
tlie interior which also checks later, ^"liis interior checking is called 
lioneycomhing. Hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two 
to six months. l)ef(U'e being kiln-dried. For the sake of economy in 
time. t1ie tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln- 
drying. Kiln-diying of one inch oak. takes one or two weeks, quarter- 
sawn boards taking ov.v and a half times as long as plain-sawn. 

The best method of drying is that which gradually raises the tem- 
perature of both the wood and of tlu' water which it contains to the 
|)oint at which the di'ying is to take ])lace. (lare is therefore taken 
not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture 
is lieated. This is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized 
about tlu' wood, by means of wet steam. When the surface is made 
peinieah'e to moistuii'. drying may take ])lace rapidly. Curtains of 
canvas aic hung all aiound the lumbei' (Ui the same ])rinci|)1e that 
windows in newly plastei'ed hiiildings are hung with luuslin. The 
irioisture is al)sorbe(l on the iniu-r surface of the curtain and evap- 
orates from the outer >uiface. Improvements in kiln-drying are along 
the line of moist air o])eration. In common practice, howt'ver, the 
luoist ail- |)i'inci|)]e is often lU'glei'ted. 

Tlieic ai'e two methods in opei'ation. tlu' progressive method and 
the chai'ge method. In the piogressive, the process is continuous, 
the loads going in at one end ol' the kiln, and out at the other, the 
temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that 
in passing fiom the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first 



SEASOXIKG. 47 

moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. In the cliarge system, 
the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new 
one is admitted. This gives the best results with high grade lumber 
for special uses. 

A modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the 
wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the 
products of the combustion of fuel. 

(o) Small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being 
boiled in water and then diied. Tlie process seems to consist of dis- 
solving out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evapora- 
tion. Its effect is probably weakening. 

(4) Soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation 
for air-seasoning. Previous soaking hastens seasoning. Eiver men 
insist that tindjer is improved by rafting. It is a common practice 
to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several 
months before they are '"mined out."" They are eargerly sought after 
by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. 
Ebony is water-soaked in the island of Mauritius as soon as cut. 
Salt water renders wood harder, h.eavier, and more durable and is 
sometimes applied to sliip timbers, but cannot be used with timbers 
intended for ordinary ])nrposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorl) 
atmospheric moisture. 

( 5 ) Boiling in oil is re sorted to for special purposes, both for 
preservation and to give strength. For example, the best handserews 
are so treated. The oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most 
frecpient cause of injury to handserews. 

(6) There are a number of "impregnation"' methods of preserv- 
ing timber, and their piactice is spreading rapidly. Of the various 
preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chlorid 
have proved most efficient. The purpose is to force the preservative 
into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting un- 
der pressure. Such impregnation methods double or treble the life 
of railway ties. It is now being used with great success to preserve 
electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc. 

Wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life 
of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of 
species that once were considered worthless. For example, the cheap 
and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to 
take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes. 



48 



HAXDWOIJK IX WOOD. 



PKACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOl! STOKIXG LU:\IBE1!. 

rnder the hasty metliods piovalent in the mill, very little wood 
conies to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore he carefulh' 
st<ired hefore using, so as to have the fullest possihle air eirenlation 
ai'ound it. Wheie the boards are hirge enough, "'sticking" is the best 
nu'thod of storage, i. e., narrow strips of wood are placed at short 
intervals between the ])ieces which are ])iled tiat. The weight of the 
boards themselves helps to jjrevent warping. Boards set upright or 
on edge arc likely to be distoi'ted soon. It is often wise to press to- 
gether with weights or to clam]) together with handscrews boards 

that show a tendency to warp, 
putting the two concave sides 
together. Then the convex 
side is exposed and the l)oard 
may straighten tlius: Fig. 08. 
By wrapping uj) small boards 
in ])aper or cloth in the inter- 
vals between work on them, 
they may he ke])t straight un- 
til they are assembled. 
Another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a 
board if either is planed, especially if the board has been exposed to 
air-drving for some time. 




Fig. SS. Clanipiiigr up Hoards (o Prevent 
Warpiiiy. 



WOOD yrEASUPiE.ArKXTS. 

T.und)er is a general terui for all kinds of sawn wood. I.ogs ma\ 
be sawn into timber, that is, beams and joists, into planks, which 
are 2" to 4" thick, or into boai'ds which are from '4" to 1-J4" thick. 
These may be resawn into sjiecial sizes. 

•Lund)er is measured l)y the superficial foot, whicli is a 1)oard V' 
thick, 12" wide, and 12" long, so that a board l" thick, (or "s" 
diessed) (i" wide and 12' o" long, measuics (i' 1). M. (board measiti'e). 
Koai'ds ]" or moi'c thick are sold by the "i)oard foot"" whit'h is equiva- 
lent to 12" s(piare and I" thick. Boards less than 1" thick are sold 
by the squai'e foot, face measure. Dressed hunber comes in sizes Ys" 
less than sawn lumbei'. I>ei;idai' sizes are; 





SEASOlSriXG 




%" 


dressed to 


V2 


M" 


dressed to 


Vs 


1 " 


dressed to 


Vs' 


1^" 


dressed to 


IVs' 


11/," 


dressed to 


Ws' 


2 " 


dressed to 


iH' 



49 



Any of these inay be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn 
on a sj^ecial band-saw. 

In ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the 
order of thickness, widtli, and length, becanse tliat is the order in 
which dimensions are gotten out. E. g. : 

(i pes. quar. oak, ^"x6"x3' 0" 
2 pes. qiiar. oak. ^"x7i4"xl5" 

If a jAece wanted is sliort tlie way tlie grain goes, tlie order wonld 
be the same, thus: ^"xll" (wide) x 6" (long). That is, "long" 
means the way the grain runs. It is always safe to specify in such a 
case. It is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter 
to the cost for waste. 

In large lots lumber is ordered thus: 800' (B. M.) whitewood, 
dressed 2 sides to J4'\ 10" and up. This means that the width of any 
piece must not be less than 10 ". Prices are usually given per ''M," 
i. e., per 1000 ft. : e. g. : basswood may be quoted at $40.0(1 per ]M. 

When thin Ijoards are desired it is often economical to Iniy inch 
stuff and have it resawn. 

Some luml)er is also ordered by the "running'" or lineal foot, es- 
pecially moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard size 
as in fence-posts, studs, etc. Laths and shingles are ordered by the 
bundle to cover a certain area. 1000 4" shingles (=-4 bundles) cover 
110 sq. ft. with 4" weather exposure. 100 laths (1 bundle) each 
}i"xiy2"x4:' 0" cover about 150 sq. ft. 

There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule 
is to multiply the length in feet by the widtli and thickness in inches 
and divide by 12. thus: I"x6"xl5'^12=7>4 feet. The use of the 
Essex board-measure and the Lumljerman's board-measure are de- 
scribed in Chapter 4. pp. 109 and 111. 



5U HAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 



THE SEASOXIXG AND MEASURING OF AVOOD. 

EeFEREXCES : * 
SEASOXIXG. 

Fur. Mull.. Xo. 41. pp. .5-12. von Boiilgev. pp. 66-70. 80-88. 

Scliieiik. 
Duiilap. Wodii Cntft, 6: 133, Wood Cniff. 0: 31. Nov. '06. 

Feb. "07. 
For. Circ. Xo. 40. pp. 10-16, For. Circ. Xo. 13!). 

Herty. 
Baiter, pp. 3!)-.53. Afjric. Yr. Bk., 1905, pp. 455-464. 

JIEASURIXG. 

Siekels, pp. 22. 29. Building Trades Pocketbook, pp. 

335, 340. 357. 
C4oss. p. 12. Tate, p. 21. 



'For general bibliiii>raph3' see p. 4. 



Chapter IV. 

WOOD HAND TOOLS. 

The hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for 
convenience, he divided into the following classes: 1, Cutting; 2, 
Boring; 3, Chopping; 4, Scraping; 5, Pounding; G, Holding; 7, 
Measuring and Marking; 8, Sharpening; 9, Cleaning. 

1. CUTTING TOOLS. 

The most j^rimitive as well as the simplest of a 1 tools for the 
dividing of wood into parts, is the Avedge. The wedge does not even 
cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow 
its main body to split the wood apart. As soon as the split has be- 
gun, the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides 
bear against the split surfaces of the wood. The split runs ahead of 
the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided. 

It was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained 
slabs of wood, and the great change from- primitive to civilized meth- 
ods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for 
splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. The wedge follows the grain 
of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the 
worker. The edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge 
and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural 
grain of the wood. 

In general, it nuiy be said that the function of all cutting tools 
is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite 
path. All such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the material 
into two parts ; second, by the wedge or the l)lade forcing these two 
portions apart. If a true continuous cut is to be made, both of these 
actions must occur together. The edge must be sharp enough to 
enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising 
them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two 
portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue. 

The action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only 

51 



52 



lIANDWOIiK IX WOOD. 





Wedye Action. 



Fiyr. t)0 
Edtre Action. 



the second process is taking place, Fig. 59. The split which opens 
in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the^ 
surfaces of the opening are longh and torn. 

When a knife or chisel is 
pressed into a i)iece of wood at 
right angles to the grain, and 
at some distance from the end 
of the wood, as in Fig. GO, a 
(•(nitiiuioiis cutting action is 
])revented, because soon the 
hhide cannot force apart the 
sides of the cut made by the 
advancing edge, and the knife 
is brought to rest. In this case, 
it is practically only the first action which has taken place. 

Both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place 
together to produce a true continuous cut. The edge must always be 
in contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be 
pushing aside the portions which ha-\e been cut. This can ha[)i)en 
oidy Avhen the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and 
weak enough to Ije readily bent out of the way without opening a, 
sjdit in fi'ont of the cutting edge. This cutting action may take 
|)lace either fllong the grain. Fig. (il, or across it. Fig. iVi. 

The liending aside of the shaving will require less force the 
smaller the taper of the wedge. On the other hand, the wedge must 
be strong enough to sustain the Ijending resistance and also to sup- 
])oit the cutting edge. In other 
woi'ds, the more acute the cut- 
ting edge, the easier the work, 
and hence the wedge is made as 
thin as is consistent with 
sti'cngtli. This vai'ies all the 
wav finin hollow ground I'az- 
ors to cold-chisels. For soft 
wood, the cutting angle (or 
bevel, oi' l)ezel ) of chisels. 

gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as 20°; foi' hard wood, 
it must be .greatei-. For metals, it varies from 5-t° for wrought ii<)u 
to (50° for trun metal. 




Fig-. 61 Fig-. 62 

Edge and W^edge Ac- Edge and Wedge Ac- 
tion With the Grain, tion Across the Grain 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



53 



Ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face near- 
est the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut 
desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the 
actual edge. 

There are two methods of using edge tools : one, the chisel oi- 
straight cut, l^y direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut. 

The straight cut. Fig. 63, takes place 
when the tool is moved into the mate- 
rial at right angles to the cutting edge. 
Examples are : the action of metal- 
working tools and planing machines, 
rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the 
plane is held parallel to the edge of the 
board being planed), and chiseling, 
when the chisel is pushed directly in 
line with its length. 

The knife or sliding cut. Fig. 64, 
takes place Avhen the tool is moved for- 
ward oblicjuely to its cutting edge, 
either along or across the grain. It is 
well illustrated in cutting soft mate- 
rials, such as l)read. meat, rubber, cork, 

etc. If is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging. That tliis 
sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved 
with a penknife on thin Avood, or by planing with the plane held at 
an angle to, rather than in line with, the direction of the planing 
motion. The edge of the cutter then sHdes into the material. 
The reason Avhy the sliding cut is easier, is partly because the angle 
of the bevel with tlie wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely, 
and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with 
'very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts 
like a saw. In an auger-lht. both methods of cutting take place at 
once. The scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip 
is thrust directly into the Avood. 

The chisel and the knife, one Avith the edge on the end, and the 
other Avith the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern 
cutting tools. 

The chisel Avas at first only a chi])ped stone, then it came to be a 
around stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of iron, and 




54 



IJAXDWORK IN WOOD. 




Fiii-. 05. Firmer-Chisel. 



now it is made of steel. In its early foini it is known by paleon- 
tologists as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later developed 
into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel for 
cuts made by driving and paring. It is quite likely that the celt 
itself was simply a development of the wedge. 

In the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. This 
constitutes the essential feature of tbe chisel, namely, that the back 
of tlie blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel. 
Blades vary in width fi'om 1 / IG inch to 2 inches. Xext to the blade 
on the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank. Fig. 65. Xext, 

as in socketed 
chisels, there 
is the socket 
to i-eceive the 
handle, or, in 
tanged chisels, 
a shoulder and 
four - sided 
tang which is 
driven into 
the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. The handle 
is usually nuide of ai)])le wood. 

The most familiar I'orm is the pniier-clnscl . Fig. (iT), Avhich is said 
to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the 
paring-chisel. (See below.) The firmer- 
chisel is a general utility tool, being 
suited for hand pressure or mallet 
pounding, foi' paring or for light mor- 
tising. 

Different varieties of chisels are 
named: (1) according to their uses; as 
paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise- 
chisels, carving-chisels, turning-chisels, 
etc. 

The jjtiriiifj-rliisc]. Fig. GG, lias a 
lumdle speciallv slia])ed to give control 
over iis movements, and a long tbin 
l)lade, wbich in the best I'orm is bev;'led 
on tbe two edges to facilitate gi'oovin». 



Itr-r 



Fi«-. <>(' Fifi-. I)" Fifr. 08 

Paring'- Framing-- Mortise- 
Chisel. Chisel. Chisel. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



55 







■ 


■ 


m 


3 






■ 


^M 


W-^ 


iml 






I 


% 


^ 


P 


■"^ 


■ 


i 


HHIk* 


^^ 


1 



It is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use 
with a mallet. 

The framing-chisel. Fig. 67, is thick and heavy and was formerly 
much used in house framing. It is usually made with the handle 
fitting into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of 
heavy blows from the mallet. 

The mortise-chisel. Fig. 68, 
is made abnormally thick to 
give the stiffness necessary for 
levering the waste out of 
mortises. 

(2) Chisels are also named 
according to their shapes : 
as, skew-chisels, corner-chisels, 
round-nosed chisels, etc. 

The angle of the bevel of a 
chisel is determined Ijy the kind 
of wood for which it is most 
used, hard wood requiring a 
wider angle than soft wood, in 
order to support the edge. For 

ordinary work, the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about 30". 
The chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint. 
It may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his pref- 
erence for the chisel. Indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker 
is : "When in doubt, use a chisel". 

In general, there are two uses for the chisel (1), when it is driven 
by a push with the hand, as in paring, and (2), when it is driven 
by blows of a nuillet, as in digging mortises. 

In relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions : 
(1) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; (2) laterally, 
across the surface, called cutting sidewise ; (3) transversely, that is 
across the end, called cutting end-wood. 

1. Paring. To remove shavings rapid'y, the chisel is held flat 
side up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb 
pointing toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as 
in Fig. 69. Held in this way great control can be exerted and much 
force applied. For paring the surface as fiat and smooth as possible, 
the chisel should be reversed, that is, held so that the fiat side will 



Fig- 69. Paring- With a Chisel. 



56 



IIAXDWOBK IX WOOD. 



act as a guide. Held in tins way the rliisel has no equal for paring 
except the plane. Paring with the chisel is the method used in 
cutting sto]) chaiufers. (See p. 185, Chapter VIII.) By holding 

the cutting edge ob'iquely to 
the direction of the grain and 
of the cut, the etfective "sliding 
cut" is ol)tained. Fiff- <>-!:. 





Fiff. 70 ChiseliiifT Out a Oadi 
(First Step"). 



Fi-r. 71. Chiseling' Out a Dado 
(Second Step). 



2. In si<lrirls(' rhisi-liin/ the chisel is held in the same umnner as 
]>aring. A tvpical foiui of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out 
a dado, Fig. TO. The work may l)e ])laced im the bench-hook or 

In-Ill ill the \ise. with the side up 
fi'oui which the gi()(j\'e is to be cut. 
'I'lii' chisi'l is pushed dii'ectly across 
the gi'aiu, the blade being somewhat 
inclined to the upjjcr surface so as 
to cut off a corner next the saw 
keif. After a few cuts thus made 
with the chisel incline(l alternately 
both ways, the ii<lge thus formed is 
taken otf. Fig. ^1. In this way the 
sill face is lowei'cd to the required 
(lc|i|h. If iiioic force he reipiired. 
the |ialni of the haml uiay be useil 
as a mallet. 

;>. In clilscliiif/ ciid-irood, it is 
well, if |)ossil»'e, to rest the piece to 
he triiMiiied Hat on the cutting board 
or on a ])iece of waste wood. Work 
done in this way is often calle(l ])er- 
liendicular chiseling. Fig. "]'!. The 
handle is grasped in the right hand. 




Fit;-. 72. Perpendicular Chisclint 



WOOD IIAXD TOOLS. 



57 



thumb up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and 
first finger of the left hand, the back of which rests on the work and 
holds it in place. As the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the 
thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion. When chis- 
eling it is well to stand so as to look along 
the line being cut. Incline the chisel to- 
ward you, and use the near part of the 
cutting edge for a guide and the farther 
corner for cutting, pushing the handle both 
down and forward at the same time, Fig. 
T3. Or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with 
the thumb of the left hand at the same 
time that the right hand ])ushos it down- 
ward, the effective sliding cut is obtained. 
End chiseling requires considerable 
force and therefore onlv thin shavings Fig-. 73. chiseUng- End wood. 





Fig-. 74. Pariiijtr a Corner Round 



the work down tight with a handscrew 
to a perfectly smooth cutting board. It 
is often advisable however, to set the 
piece upright in the vise and pare off 
thin shavings horizontally. Fig. 74. In 
rounding a corner, both this and per- 
pendicular chiseling are common meth- 
ods. In both cases care should be taken 
to cut from the side toward the end 
and not into the grain, lest the piece 
S]ilit. Fiar. 75. In horizontal end par- 



should be cut off at a 
time. Or the mallet may 
be used with caution. In 
order to leave a smooth 
surface the chisel must 
be very sharp. Even then 
the lower arris (corner) 
is likely to be splin- 
tered oft'. This can be 
prevented l)y clamping 




Fig-. 75. Rig-ht and Wrong- Ways 
of Perpendicular ChiseUng-. 



58 



IIAXDUORK IX WOOD. 



ing. Fig. 74, in order to prevent splint- 
tering, it is well to trim down the arrises 
diagonally to the line and then to re- 
duce the rest of the end surface. 

In all hand chiseling, it is a wise 
])recaution not to try to cut out much 
material at each stroke hut to work 
back gradually to the line. 

A typical foim of mallet chiseling is 
the digging of a mortise. Fig. 76. (Sec 
alsii ]). .'iii.) The chisel is held perpen- 
dicular ill the left hand, while the right 
hand drives hlows with the inal'et. The 
haiumer should never he used. (See 
mallet. ]>. iMi. ) By rocking the chisel 
and at the same time giving it a twisting 
motion while the edge is kept on the 
wood, the edge can he stejiped to the 
exact ])]ace desired. Care sliould he 
taken to work hack to the lines gradu- 
ally, to cut only ])art way thru from 
each sidi' (in the case of a thru mor- 
tise-and-tenon ) . and to keep the cut 
faces perpendicular to the surfaces. 
In sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the hack be 

kept peifectly flat. The l)evel is first giound on the grindstone 

to an angle of about 20°. 

and great care should he 

taken to keep the edge 

straight and at right angles 

to the sides of the blade. 

After grinding it is nec- 
essary to whet the chisel 

and other edged tools. (See 

jilso under oilstones, p. 121.) 

First see that there is 

]»leiity of oil on the stone. 

If an iron box be used, Fig. 

7T. the oil is obtained sim- 

iih l)v liirning tlie stone ^. .. ,, , „, „., 

■^ ^'-' ^^ '■' ting- a Plane-Bit. 




Fig. 76. Mallet Chiselin^r. The Piece 

is Clamped Down on die Bench 

With the Bench Hoi>U. 




WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



59 




Fig. 78. GrindiniLr Aiig-le, 20"; 
Whetting- Angle, 25". 



over, for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene. 
Place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does 

lie flat, then tip np the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more 

■obtuse than that which it was ground, Fig. 78. The more nearly the 

chisel can be whetted at the an- 
gle at which it was ground the 
better. In rubbing, use as 
much of the stone as possible, 
so as to wear it down evenly. 
The motion may be back and 
forth or spiral, but in either 
case it should be steady and not 

rocking. This whetting tuins a light wire edge over on the flat side. 

In order to remove this wire edge, the back of the chisel, that is, the 

straight, unbeveled side, is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and 

rubbed, then it is turned over and the l)evel rubbed again on the stone. 

It is necessary to leverse the chisel in this way a nund^er of times, in 

order to remove the wire e(]ge, but the chisel should never ))e tipped 

so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side. Finally, the edge is 

touched up (stropped) by being drawn over a piece of leather a few 

times, first on one side, then on the other, still continuing to hold 

the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect. 

To test the sharpness of a whetted edge, 

draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly 

along it, Fig. 79. If the edge be dull, it will 

feel smooth; if it be sharp, and if care be 

taken, it will score the skin a little, not 

enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt. 
The gouge is a form of chisel, the blade 

of which is concave, and hence the edge 

curved. When the bevel is on the outside, 

the common form, it is called an outside bevel 

gouge or simply a "gouge," Fig. 80 ; if the 

bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside 

bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge. Fig. 81.' 




Pig. 79. Testing the Sliarpness 
of a Chisel. 



^Another confusing nomenclatui'e (Goss) gives the name "inside gouges'" 
to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and "outside gouges" to those 
with the cutting edye on the outside. 



Fin. m FiiLT. « 

FirniiM- Inside 

(iougeOut- Bevel 

side Bevel. Goiifre. 



hO IIAXDWOBK IN WOOD. 

('ar\in,L;- tools me, properly speaking, all 
cliiscls. and are of different shapes for facility in 
r;iv\ing. 

Vov oi'diiiai'v gouging. Fig. 8'3, the blade is 
,L;ri|i|)iMl lii'inly by the left hand with the knuck- 
les II]). so tbat a strong c-oiiti-ol can be exerted 
ovci' it. The g<nige is manipulated in much the 
same way as the cliisel, and like the chisel it is 
used longitudinally, laterally, and transversely. 

In working with tbe grain, by twisting the 
Made on its axis as it moves forward, (h^-licate 
|iaring cuts may l)e made. Tins is |)articularly 
necessary in working cioss-grained wood, and is 
a good illustration of the advantage of the slid- 
ing cut. 

in gouging out bioad surfaces like trays or 
saddle seats it will be found of gi'cat advantage 

to work laterally, tbat is across tbe surface, especially in even grained 

woods as sweet gum. Tlie tool is not so lik'ely to sli]) off and run in 

as when working witli tbe grain. 

The ti'ouge that is comnuuily rist'(| foi' cutting c(uica\(' outlines 

on end gi'ain, is the inside bevel gouge. Like tbe cbisel in cutting 

convex outlines, it is pushed or driven ])erpendicu'arly thru the 

wood laid Hat on a cutting l)oard on tbe bencb. as in ])erpendicular 

cbiseling. Fig. Tv, p. -^'i. 

Tn sbarjjening an outside bevel g(nige, tlu' main bevel is obtained 

on tbe grindstone, caic being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its 

axis, so as to get an e\en cuive. 

Tt is tlien wbetted on tbe Hat 

side of a. sli])st<uie. Fig. S^i, the 

bevel already ol)taine(l on tbe 

gi'indstone lieing made slightly 

mole obtuse at tbe edge. A good 

iiietbod is to rock tbe gouge cm 

its axis with tbe left bamh while 

ihe slipstone belli ill tbe rioht 

band is rultbed l)ac]< and forlb on 

tbe edge. Tbeii tbe conca\'e side 

is rubbed on tbe round ed^'e of 




Fig. 82. Goiitrinj,'. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



61 



the slipstone, care being taken 

to avoid putting a bevel on it. 

Inside bevel gouges need to be 

ground on a carborundum or 

other revolving stone having a 

round edge. The outfit of the 

agacite grinder, (Fig. 224, p. 

120), contains one of these 

stones. The whetting, of 

course, is the reverse of that 

on the outside bevel gouge. 
The knife differs from the 

chisel in two respects, (1) the 

edge is along the side instead 

of the end, and (2) it has a 

two-beveled edge. Knives are 

sometimes made with one side 

flat for certain kinds of paring work, but these are uncommon. The 

two-beveled edge is an advantage to the worker in enabling him to 
cut into the wood at any angle, but it is a disadvan- 
tage in that it is incapable of snaking flat surfaces. 
The knife is particularly valuable in woodwork 
for scoring and for certain emergencies. Tlie sloyd 
knife. Fig. 84. is a tool likely to be. misused in the 
liands of small children, but when sharp and in 
strong hands, has numy valual)le uses. A conveni- 
ent size has a 2^ inch blade. When grinding and 
whetting a knife, the fact that both sides are beveled 
alik'e should l)e kept in UMud. 




Fi<r. 83. WhettinjT a Goua-e. 





85. Draw-Knife. 



The draw-hnife, Fig. 85, is ground like a chisel, with the bevel 
onlv on one side, but the edge is along the side like a knife. Instead 



62 



IIANDAVOKK IX WOOD. 



of being pushed into the wood, like a chisel, it is drawn into it by the 
handles which project in advance of the cutting edge. The handles 
are sonietiiiies made to fold over the edge, and thus i)rotect it when 
not in use. The s\7.r is indicated by tlic length of the cutting 
edge. It is j)a]-ticularly useful in icducing narrow surfaces and in 
slicing off large jiieces. but it is liable to split rather tbaii cut the 
wood. 



SAWS. 



Fig-. SO H.ind Saw. 



The object of the saw is to cut thru 
a piece of material along a determined 
line. Its etliciency depends upon (1) 
tbe narrowness of the saw cut or "kerf," 
and C^) u])on the force required to drive 
it thru the material. The thinner the l)lade, the less material will be 
cut out and wasted, and the less force will have to be applied. In 
order to have the saw as thin as possiljle, almost all the peo])le of 
the world, except the Anglo Saxons, have saws that cut when they 
are ])ulle(l toward the worker. Tbe blade is in tension while cutting 
and in compression only when being returned for a new cut. Gei'man 
carpenters use a saw like oui' turning-saw. English and .Vmericans 
have developed the saw on the o|)posite prinei])le, namely, that it 
should cut on the ])usliing stroke. As a matter of fact, the crosscut- 
saw cuts somewhat on the liack stroke. The pusbing stioke necessi- 
tates a thickening of tbe blade sufTicient to ]U'event buckling, — a not 
uncommon oceurrenee in tbe bands (d' a no\iee. in spite of this thick- 
ening. l)Ut tho this rc(piires more I'oree. and involves more waste, 
there ai'e the compi'usations tliat tbe ai-m can exert moi'e ])rcssure in 
]mshing than in ]udling. especially when the worker stands upright 
oi' stoops oYvv his work, and tbe stilVei' wide blade acts as a guide to 
the sawver. Each method has its advantages. Wbatevei' may be true 
of hand-saws, in macbine-saws the tension method, as illustrated by 
the gang-saw and tbe band-saw. is steadily dispbu-ing tbe eompies- 
sion metliod utilized in the circular-saw. ^lany kinds of work, how- 
ever, can be done only on tbe circular-saw. 

In oi'der to dimiinsb tbe ilisadx antages of tbe tbi-usting sti'oke, the 
modern band-saw. |-'ig. Sli. lias been gradually impi'oved as the re- 
sult of miicb experience and ibougbt. 'I'be outline oT ibe blade is 
tajieied in widtli From bandle to point ; it is tbicker also at the 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 63 

heel (the handle end) than at the point; its thickness also tapers 
from the teeth to the back. All these tapers gives stiffness where 
it is most needed. It is made wide for the sake of giving stead- 
iness in sawing. The fact that it is thinner at the back than along 
the teeth gives it clearance in passing back and forth in the kerf, but 
the friction is still great, especally in sawing soft or damp wood. To 
avoid this l)inding still further, the teeth are "set" alternately one to 
one side and the next to the other, and so on. 



rc r i: — r — 1^ r "^^ r "^ — p 

A 



A' 



|%3^/M/y55ACvNVV5VW\!V| 



Fig. 87. Rip Saw Teeth: A edf^e view, B-side view, C cross-section. 
Crosscut-Saw Teeth: A' -edge view, B' -side view, C -cross-section. 

The size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches. 
The coarseness of the teeth is indicated by the number of "points" to 
the inch. "Points" should not be confused with teeth as there is 
always one more point per inch than tliere are teeth. For example, a 
five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four full teeth, 
Fig. 87. Eip-saws lun from 4 to 7 points per inch; crosscut-saws 
from 6 to 12 points per inch. 

In general, saws are of two kinds, rip-saws and crosscut-saws. 

The rip-saw. Fig. 87, may he thought of as a series of chisels set 
in two parallel rows which overlap each other, for each tooth is filed 
to a sharp edge which, at each stroke, chisels off a small paiticle from 
the end of the wood fibers. 

The shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a 
number of factors: as, strength of the individual tooth, the acuteness 
of the cutting angle, and the ease of sharpening. The steel of a saw 
is softer than that of a chisel, in order that it may be filed and set. 
Hence it is Aveaker and the edge cannot be so acute. A typical form 
of tooth is shown in Fig. 87, in which A is an edge view, B the side 
view, and C a cross section. The angle of each tooth covers 60°, one 
side, the "face", being at right angles to the line of the teeth. The 
cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade. 

This arrangement works with entire success along the grain, but 
if a rip-saw is used to cut across the grain, since there is no provision 



64 



llAXDWOTJK TX TiVOOD. 



for cutting thru tlu' fiheis. I'.u-li tooth catches in them and tears them 
out. thus leaving a rongli and jagged surface. 

In tlie crossriit-sdir. tlierefore. the teeth are tiled to points, and 
the cutting edge is on the forward side of eacli alternate tooth. In 
Fig. 87. A' is the eilge view. B' is the side view and C is a cross-sec- 
tion. ]n a pro})erly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide between 
these two rows of teeth fiom oiH' end of the saw to the other. 

I n action the 
])oints. especially their 
^^ to]' ward edges, cut or 

m^m- ii^''^i^ I i^c-ore the fibres of 

PIP ' Y Yk^ • i ' ' I Nvood, and then the tri- 

'•^ ^ ■■^i*/.^. vv nngular elevation of 

vrood left between the 
two rows of points is 
erund)]ed oif l)y fric- 
tion as the saw passes 
thru. Thus it drops 
farther and farther 
into tile cut. A 
i-rosscut-saw may be 
thought of as a series 
of knife ])oints, ar- 
ranged in two parallel 
idws. Ordinarily the 
angle of the "tace" of 
each tooth with the 
line of the teeth is 
about <i.")°. and slightly 
steeper than the back 
of the tootli. The angle of the cutting vC\)iv of each tooth nniy be 
filed luore acute when the saw is to he used for soft wood onlv. 

A crosscut-saw when used to rip a hoard, works slowly, for there 
is no chisel action to cut out the fibres betwt'cn the points, but the cut, 
tho slow, is smooth. In cutting diagonally across a piece of wood, 
especially soft wood, a ii|»-saw cuts fastt'r. hut a crosscut, smoother. 
1 11 i'i|)|)ing a l)oar(l. allowance should always be made for planing 
to the lint' afterward, in stai'ting a cut with the rip-saw, the weight 
ol' the saw should he boiiu' by the right hand so that the teeth may 




Fif."'. J-.X. Rip-Sawiiiy^ on a Horse. 



WOOD IIAXD TOOLS. 



65 



pass over the edge of the wood as lightly as possible. The left thumb 
acts as a guide. If the saw be handled thus, and the angle with the 
board be quite acute, it is not necessary to start with a back stroke. 
When the kerf is well started, the whole weight of the saw may be 
applied. An easy light stroke is better than a furious one. The line 
should be followed carefully, but if the saw runs from the line it may 
be brouglit back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw 
and twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction. If the saw 
binds and buckles because of the springing together of the wood, the 
kerf may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a l)it of waste wood. 
A drop of oil rul^bed across each side of the saw will make it work 
more easily. 

Care should be 
taken in finishing a 
cut to hold up firmly 
the part of the wood 
which is being sawn 
ofi' so that it will no I 
split off or splinter. 

Sawing may be 
done either on a saw- 
horse. Fig. 88, or at 
a bench. For big, 
rough work, the for- 
mer is the common 

way, the worker holding the matvi-ial in place with oik' knee, because 
this method enables him to exert liis greatest strength. A convenient 
way for rip-sawing a small })ieee of wood is to inseit it in the vise, 
Fig. 89, with the broad side of the hoard ]>arallel to the vise screw, 
and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright. 
The start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line, and the board 
is not in danger of splitting. The board, however, has to be reversed 
after it is sawn part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut. 

The hacJc-saw or tenon-saw, Fig. 90, is a fine crosscut-saw, with 
a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. Since it is 
intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set. 

In sawing, the wood may he he'd either in the vise or on the 
bench-hook. To liel]) start the saw and at the same time to keep 
the edges of the cut shai]). it is well to make a little groove 




Fig-. 89. 



Rip-sawiiijr with Wood Held in 
Bench-Vise. 



66 



HAXDWOEK IN WOOD. 



with the knife, on the waste 

side of the line to he f(Ulowe(l, 

cutting the side of tlie groove 

next to the line at right angles 

to the surface. The saw dro})S 

directly into tliis groove. Fig. 

91. In starting the saw cut, 

the saw slioiild l)e guided hy 

holding till' tliund) of the left 

hand auaiust the side of the 

saw just ahove the teeth. Cntil the keif is 

should 




Fig-. 90. Usintr the Back-Saw 
with Bench-Hook. 



i^ — i 



well St a 1 ted. the saw 
held so that the teeth just touch the wood. It is hetter not 
to attempt to start the saw level, i. e., 
with the teeth resting clear across the 
wood, hilt the handle should be J'aised 
so that the start is made only at the 
farther edge of the wood. Then as the 
saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will 
extend (|uite across the wood. Fig. 92. 
When the l)ack-saw is used for ripping, 
the wood is held in tlie vise, end up. 
I'x'gin sawing as in crosscutting. that is, 
at the farther corner with the handle 
end of the saw uj). and gradually drop 
the liandle. Watch the lines on both 
the front and hack <id(^s, and if neces- 
sary, I'everse tlie piece to follow them. 

The ilorrfitil-sdir. Fig. 9;i, is a small hack-saw for delicate work. 

The couipass-sdii-. Fig. 94. is narrow. i)ointe(h thick, to prevent 



Fig-. 'II. Startintr a Saw Cut in a 
Troutrh Cut With Knife. 




^l^^^B 



Fiy. 'i3. Dovetail-Saw 




Fifr '>2. Direction of the Back-Saw 



Fig-. "^'4. Compass-Saw. 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



67 




Fig-. 95. Usino- a Turning-Saw. 



buckling, and Avith a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the 

curves. The teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. It 

is used in sawing curves. 

The tuniiiKj-sair, Fig. !).5, is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which 

stretches the saw tight, so that 
it works as a tension saw (cf. 
p. 62. The best frames are 
made so that the handles which 
hold the blade can revolve in 
the frame. The turning-saw is 
used chiefly for cutting curves. 
A 14 inch blade, 3/16 of an inch 
wide is a good size for ordinary 
use. The teeth are like those 
of a rip-saw, so that they are 
quite likely to tear the wood in 
cutting across the grain. Al- 
lowance should 1)6 made for this 
and the surplus removed with 

a spokeshave. The turning-saw may l^e.used to cut on eithei' the 

pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward 

or away from the worker. The ])ulling cut is generaUy better, as it 

puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut. Both hands 

should gras]) tlie frame as near the end of the blade as possible, 

Fig. 95. Till us au' made hy revolving the frame on the blade as an 

axis, w h i c h 

should ahvays 

be kept at 

right angles 

to the surface 

of the board. 

Care should 

be taken not 

to twist the 

blade. 

To file and 

set a saw, the 

saw is first 

fastened i n „. „, „ ^r- 

Fig-. 96. Saw-Vise. 




68 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 




Vig.'n. A Saw-Joint ir. 



the saw-vise, Fig. 90, with the tei'th up. It is then top-jointed by 
running a tiat file or a saw-jointer. Fig. !»;, back and forth length- 
wise along the tops of the 
teeth to ))ring them to a level. 
After jointing the saw should 
be set. For this purpose a saw- 
set. Fig. 98. is necessar}^ Ev- 
ery alternate tooth is bent in 
tlie direction of its set by the 
phniger in the instrument 
piisliing against the anvil, 
winch is an adjustable eccentric 
disc. After the saw is set. it is filed. This is done with a triangular 
file. Fig. 144. p. 90. which is iield in the right hand and its point in 
the thund) and fingers of the left. Piessure is a])plied only on the 
forwai'd stmke. which should b;.' 
long and even, the fde being 
raised above the tooth on the 
letuin stidke. The lih' shouhl 
cut in the direction of the set. 
that is. the teeth having the 
set away from tlie workei- 
are nk'tl first. iMery alternate 

tooth, 1st. od. otli. etc.. is tikMh ami then tlie saw is reveised and the 
other set, the '.M, 4th. (Ith. etc.. is liled. 

in filing a rip-saw the tile should move exactly pei})endicularly 
to the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. The 
filing is done on the hack of the teeth, the file just touching the face 
of the next one. The filing is coutinued. with one. two. or three 
strokes, tor each tooth, as the case may re(piire. or just until each 
tootli is shai']). 

J 11 filing a crosscut-saw. the file is held ])ointing upward and to- 
v.ard the ))oiiit of the saw. The tile should cut in the direction of 
the set. The angle of the cutting e<lge is dett'rmined l)y the hori- 
zontal inclination of the lile to the blade ; the angh' of the ])oint is 
deterniiiie(| bv the jieipeiidicuhir inclination of the lib' to the blade. 
Finally the sides (d' the trv\\\ aie riibhed lightly witii a slipstone 
to remove the wire vdiS^'. It should a'wa\s be remembered that a saw 
is an edge tool, and its e<lges are as lialde to injury as any edges. 




Fig-. 98. S.-iw-Set. 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



69 



PLANES. 

The plmie is a modified chisel. The chief difference in action 
between a chisel and a plane in paring is this : the back of the chisel 
lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut, and acts as a 
guide; whereas, in the plane, the cutter is elevated at an angle away 
from the surface of the wood, and only its cutting edge touches the 
wood, and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane median- 




if 



~^<^ 




Fif,'. 9<J. Adjustable Chisel-Gage. Fig-. 100. Wooden Bench-Plane. 

ism. In other words, a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which 
raises the cutter at an angle from the work, regulates the depth of 
the cut, and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action. An 
illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable chisel- 
gage, Fig. 99. 

The plane has developed as follows : it was first a chisel held in 
a block of wood. This is all that oriental planes are now, simply a 




Fig. 101. Section of Jack-Plane. 

sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood. When the hole works 
too loose, the Japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten 
it, or he makes a new block. The first improvement was the addition 
of a wooden wedge to hold in place the "plane-iron", as the cutter 
was formerly called. Tn this form, the cutter or plane-iron, tho still 



70 HAXDWOHK IX ^VOOD. 

wedge-sliaped, was reversed, being made heavier at the cutting edge 
in order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means 
of the wooden wedge. Then a handle was added for convenience. 
Tlieii came the cap, the object of which is to brrak hack the shaving 
and thus weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut. Until a few 
years ago, this was all that there was in a ])lane. and sneli planes are, 
still connnon. Fig. KMi. Finally tlicre appeared the iron plane, Fig. 
10], witli it various mechanical adjustments. The following are 
the parts of the Bailey iron plane:'' 

1. ('utlcr. or bit. or Ijladc. or i>l<i ik -iron. 

2. Cap. or plane-iron cdp. or rtirlin^ iron. 

3. Cutter screw, or [ijanc-iroii s( n ir. 

4. Clamp, or Urcr caj). or wedjie. 
."). Claiii]i screw, or cap sci'cir. 

(). Fro;/. 

7. y Adjuslniciit. 

5. Brass set screw, or brass ikJ jusli ncj nut. 
!). TjCVci' (for lalrraj ad jusi nuiit ] . 

10. Fl^o<| sen a-. 

11. Uanillr. 
VI. Knoh. 

1.".. Handle bolt ami nut. 

14. Kiiol) screw, or Knob bolt and nut. 

ITi. Handle screw. 

KJ. lirjffoni. or solo. 

17. Toe. 

18. Heel. 
1!). Throat. 

•10. Tliiniili ]iicc(\ or clamp lever, or cam. 

There are various ])rinci|)les involved in the action of the plane. 
The effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter. If the 
surface be uneven, the cutter ^ill not cut at all, or but little, in pass- 
ing over low places, since the toe and heel of the sole will then bo 
resting on higher ])laces: Itut when the eutter leaches a high place 
a shaving will be taken olf. Hence it follows that the longer the 
)ilane. the sti'aighter will lie the surface produced. The length of the 
])hine used is dett'rmined by the length of the wood to lie planed, and 
the degree of straightness desired. 

* Tlie mnnlicrs and names in italics are those ^iven in Stanley's Catalog, 
No. 34. Some ol' lliesc names, us "iilanc-iron."" are snrvivals from the days 
of the wooden plane and are obviously unsiiiiable now. 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



71 



The part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly 
down on the wood and so prevents the shaviirg from splitting far in 
advance of the edge. It follows that the narrowness of the month 
in a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth sur- 
faces. This can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane, 
and by moving the frog in the jack- and smooth-planes. 

A recent improveiuent in jack-, smooth-, and fore-planes consists 
of an adjustable frog, by means of which the throat can be narrowed 
or widened at will l)y means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog 
without removing the clamp and cutter. It is made by Sargent and 
Company. The Stanley "Bed Eock" plane has a similar but less 
convenient device. 

The splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented 
by the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or 
its cap. Hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly 
breaking the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut. This shows 
wliy tlie ca]) is set close to the edge of the cutter. Another reason 
is that it thereby stiffens the cutter and 
prevents "chattering." If a thick shav- 
ing l)e desired the cap has to be set far- 
ther back. In a smooth-plane 1/32 inch 
is enough, in a jack-]dane 1/8 inch 
is often desirable. The fallowing are 
the planes in common use : 

The jacl--p]ane. Fig. 10-3, 14" to 15" 
long, is the one used where a consider- 
able amount of material is to be taken 
off to bring a piece of wood to size, and 
therefore the outline of the cutting edge 
instead of being straight is slightly 
cuL'ved or "crowned" so that in planing 
the surface of a board it makes a series 
of shallow grooves, the ridges of wdiich 
must afterward be smoothed off by an- 
other plane. Also for beginners whose 
hands are not strong it is sometimes wise 
to grind the cutter with some "crown", 

in order to take off narrow shavings, which require less strength. For 
school use, where the jack-plane is used for all purposes, the cutter 




Fig-. II 2 Sig'htiiig' Along- the Sole 
ol Jack-Plane 



72 HANDWOIIK IN WOOD. 

is usually ground almost straight and only the corners rounded as 
in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane.' 

The fori'-plaiie. '2'2" to 2()" long, and the jointer, 2S" to 30" long, 
are large planes, similar to the jack-plane, excei)t that the cutting edge 
is straight. They are used for straightening and smoothing long pieces. 

The siiioolli-phiiK'. hYi" to Id" long, is a short jilane, similar to 
the jack-plane, exce])t that the cutting edge is stiaiglit. It is use<l 
for smoothing. 

These ffuir })!anes. the jack-plane, the forc-i)hinc, the j(unter, and 
the smootli-plane, are essentially alike, and directions for the use of 
one apply to all. 

Theie are two chief adjustments in the Bailey iron plane: the 
brass set-screw, see 8 in Fig. KH. which regulates the depth of the 
cut, and the lever, !», which moves llic cutter sidewise so that it may 
he made to cut evenly. The skilful woi'ker kee]is coustant watch of 
these adjustments. It is well to form the habit of always sighting 
along the sole before Ijeginning to |)lane, in order to see that the 
cutter piojects properly. Fig. 1<I-^. It is a common uiistake among 
beginiUMs to let the cutter juojcct too far. 

It is iuiportant to know A\hat is tlu' best oi'der of procedure in 
planing up a board. There are often reasons for omitting the plan- 
ing up of one or more suifaces. but it is wise to form the habit of 
following a regular order, and the following is suggested as a good one: 

1. ^\'()lking• face. Plane one l)road side flat and smooth. Finish 
with the ]»laiie set to c-ut tine shavings. Test with tiy-s(piaie. ^lark 
this face with a distinct pencil iiiai'k. A. Fig. l<>o. 

'i. Working edge. Plane one narrow side stiaigbt and square 
with the working face. Test with try-s(|uare. jtressing the block of 
the ti'y-S(piare against the working face. Mai'k the working edge 
with two distinct pencil marks. I). Fig. lo.S. 

3. Fnd. First mark the width on the working face with the 
marking-gage. ('. 1-::^, Fig. 103. Chisel off the c'orner. <i . of the 
piece outside ibis gaged line. True and smooth tins end with the 
p'ane, making it scpnire with both worlcing face and W(U-king edge. 
I), -i. 3. J, Fig. 103. 

-1. Length. ^Measure the length fr(un the fiidshed end. D, 2-3-4, 
score across the woikinu' face, 1), ■")-•), and workimz' eda'e, I), 6-T, 



In \\li('t(in<;' a plaiu'-bit. a slijilit cinw n may he given it hy rubbing a 
liil liMidcr at tlic onds of tho edge than in the middle. Strop in the same 
\\;\y as a chisel (p. .")!•). 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



73 



using a sharp knife point and the tiy-sqnare. Saw just outside this 
line, D, 5-6-7, with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, D, 6, 
beyond the gaged line and plane true, E, Fig. 103. 




Fig. 103. The Order of Planing- a Board. 



5. Width. Plane to the center of the gaged line, E, 1-3. Test 
this edge from the working face, F, Fig. 103. 

6. Thickness. Mark the thickness with the marking-gage all 
around the piece, F, 8-9-10. Plane to the center of the gaged line, 
G, Fig. 103. Test this face for flatness. 



74 



llAXUWOltK IX \VUUL). 



In a \v(»i(]. the order to be followed is graphically represented in 

H, Fig. ]{):]. The surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order 

in which they are to be planed. 

The advantages of this order are these: by planing the working 

face first, a broad surface is secured to which the others may be nurde 

true. By ])laning the ends before the 
width is plaired, the danger of splitting 
olf fragments can he avoided by chisel- 
ing the corner of the unfinished edges, 
C, a, and D, h. Fig. 103, into a buttress. 
I|v planing the ends and the width be- 
foie the thickness is planed, a dressed 
face is secured aM around for gaging 
the thickness. In following this order 
all iiicasiiKMiifuts and markings are 
made oil a di csscd face. 

If tlieie be any "wind"" n\- twist in 
the ])oard, this should l)e discovered first 
of all. This may l)e done roughly by sight- 
ing acioss the broad side of the board, 
I'^ig. 104, and more accurately by the use 
of "wiuding sticks," see Fig. 205, p.. 113. 
Or the sill face may be tested with the 
FiR 104. sijfhti.iH- for Wind. ^,|.^j^^, j|j„,|f |,y tilting tlic i)lane on its 

long corner vd'j^c and resting it on the 

board, wliih' the worker looks between the board and the plane toward 

the light. It is e\ident that the plane must be turned in \arious 

directions to test for wind, and that 

:i board only as long oi' as wide as 

the plane is long can be tested in 

tlii>- way. The tiy-s(piare or any 

stiaigiif e<lge may be used for the 

same |iiii|!')se. Fig. Id."). If there be 

any wind in the board, this should 

at once be taken out of one face by 

])laning down the high corners. 

1 n stai t iiig to plane, the worker 

should bcai' down on the knoh at the front end of the plane. When 

the plane is well on the hoanl, he >liouhl hear down eipially on both 





Fisf. 10.^. TesUTi(r from Edg-e 
to Kdire. 



^VOOD HAND TOOLS. 



75 




Fig-. lOt). Planing- an Edge. 



knob and handle, and as the plane begins to pass off the board he 
should put all the pressure on the handle end. Fig. 106. By taking 

pains thus, a convex surface 
will be avoided, the making of 
which is a common error of be- 
ginners. On the return stroke, 
the plane should be lifted or 
tilted so that the cutting edge 
will not be dulled by rubbing 
on the Avood. This is especially 
important on rough and dirty 
boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine work, as it saves the 
work. If the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it 
should, it is because the planing is "against the grain". This can 
often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before begin- 
ning to plane. But even if it l)e not noted beforehand, a stroke or 
two will show the roughness. In such a case, it is necessary simply 
to turn the wood around. 

The accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be 
tested, and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more 
and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, Fig. 107. As each 
surface is trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set 
to cut fine shavings. 

In planing a very cross-gTained piece of wood, there are several 
methods to use for securing a smootli 
surface. The frog of the plane should 
be moved forward so that the throat in 
the front of the cutter is a mere slit. 
In the ordinary plane it is necessary to 
remove the cutter in order to reset the 
frog, but in the Sargent plane and the 
Stanley "bed rock"" plane, it can be set 
by a set-screw at the rear of the frog. 
Xext, the cap should l)e set so that the 
cutter projects ):)ut very little l)eyond it, 
or, in technical language, the cutter 
should be set "fine." A sliding cut, see 

p. 53. should be taken with the plane, and sometimes it may be nec- 
essary to move the plane neaidy at right angles to the general direction 




76 1IAXD\V01!K IX WOOD. 

of the grain. By tliese means even refractory pieces of wood can be 
well smootlied. See also scrai:)ers, p. 91. 

The chokino- of a plane is tlie st()i)i)age of the throat by shavings. 
It may be due sim]dy to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it 
])rojects too far l)elow the sole of the plane. In a wooden plane chok- 
ing is sometimes due to tlie crowding of sliavings under some part of 
the wedge. When the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly 
)jlaced choking may result. The frog should be far enough forward 
so tliat tlie cutter rests squarely upon it. 

Choking may. and )uost commonly does, take place because the 
cap does not fit down tight on the cutter. This happens if the cap 
l)c nicked or uneven. In conse<[uence. minute sbavings are driven 
between tbese two irons and choking soon results. 'I'be remedy is to 
sharpen tlie cap. so tbat its edge nuikes a close lit with the cutter. 
The fit may be nuide still tighter by rul:)bing with a screwdriver the 
(■<]^^v of tile cap down on tbe cutter after it is screwed in place. 

In no tool is it more important to keep tbe cutter sharp than in 
the ])lane. To remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen 
tbe clamp lever and remove tlie clani]). Carefully remove tbe cap 
and cutter taking jiains not to let tbe edge bit any part of tbe plane, 
tlien using tbe c'ani]) as a screwdi'iver. loosen the cap-screw and slide 
the ca]i back along tbe slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast 
liy a turn of tbe ca]i-screw. The edge is now free and can readily be 
whetted. Wlien tbe ca)) needs to l)e entirely removed, for instance, 
for grinding, after it lias l)een slid along tbe cutter slot, as before, it 
is turned at ligbt angles to tbe cutter, and then slid down the slot 
until tbe cap-screw unbuttons from tbe cutter. Tbe object in sliding 
tbe caj) up tbe slot liefore turning it, is to prevent tbe danger of in- 
juring tbe edge. Some cajis are now made with tlu:' liuttoidiole at 
tbe u])])er end of the slot. 

After sbarpening, (see under sbai'])ening. ]>. IIT.) the order is re- 
versed for replacing tbe cutter. Tbe cap is set at right angles to the 
cutter, tbe cap-screw dropped into tbe slot, tbe cap is slid up the 
slot, and turned into line witii tbe cutter, an<l tben slid down the slot 
till tbe edge of tbe cap comes quite near tbe edge of tbe cutter. Then 
I be two are held firmly together with the left band until the cap 
screw is turned tight. 

In rephicing the cutter and ca]! in tlie |)lane, care should be taken 
not to injure tbe edge and to see tbat the Y adjustment lever fits 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



77 



into the little slot in the cap; then iinally tlie lever is thrown down 
tight. Then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down 
it, the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral ad- 
justment lever are made. When the plane is not being used, it should 
rest either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough), 
or on its side. In no case shoidd it 1)0 droi)]ied sole down flat on 
the bench. 

The hlocl:- 
plane, Fig. 108, 
gets its name 
from the fact 
that it was first 
made for plan- 
ing off the ends 
of clap-boards, 
a process called 
"blocking in". 




Fig-. 108. Section of Block-Plane. 



The nai)ies of the parts of the Bailey block-p'ane are": 

1. Cutter or bit or plane-iron. 

2. Clamp or lever cap. 

3. Cap-sereir. 

4. Adjusting lever. 

5. Adjusting nut. 

t). Lateral a<l jushnenf. 

7. Bottom. 

8. Moutli piece. 

9. Eccentric plate. 
10. Knoh. 

The block-plane Avas devised for use with one hand, as when it is 
used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in 
planing with a bench-hook. Hence it is made small, 3^" to 8" long, 
the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is low- 
ered to an angle of about 20° to make the plane easy to grasp. The 
lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the 
upper side. Otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be 
made so long and so thin as to be weak. By putting the bevel up, 
the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically 



'' See foot-note jj. 70. 



78 



|[AXI)W0I;K IX AVOOD. 



as in the smooth-plane. Since tlie bloek-phine is intended chiefly for 
use on end grain, no cap is needed to ])Yei\k the sliavings. The ad- 
justable throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. To facili- 
tate the cutting action, several forms of l:)lock-planes with a very low 
angle are now made. 

Where both hands are free to liohl the plane, the block-plane has 
no advantage over a sm()oth-|)lane, even on end grain. j\Ioreover, the 
cutter cannot be held sd finidy in place as that of a smooth-plane, so 
that it re(piires constant adjustment. Hence it is not an easy tool 
for amateurs to handle. There is considerable lost motion in the 
adjusting nut. and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to 
woi'k loose and be lost. It is hardly to be recommended as a part of 
the e(juipnient of the individual bt'uch in school shops. 

The ])iece to lie planed with the block-plane may l)e held either 
in the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook. Fig. lt>;). In end p'aning 

in the vise, in order to avoid 
s})lintering the precautitui should 
be taken to trim oft' a corner on 
the undressed edge, as directed 
on page To. or else the planing 
iiiiist be done from l)oth edges 
towai'd the center. The sliding 
cut is much easier than the 
straight cut. and hence there is 
a constant temptation to turn 
the ])lanc at an angle pcihai>s at an ex]>cnse of the flat surface desired. 
In using the l)ench-hook the ]>iece to be block-planed is placed 
with tbe working edge against the block, with the end to be planed 
to tlu' right and Hush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which ])osi- 
lion it is held with tbe left hand. The block-plane, held in the right 
hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the W(U'k. In 
planing, the left band bolds llie woi'k iirndy against the block of the 
beiicb-hook, pressing it somewhat to tbe I'iglit against tlu' plane. The 
riglit hand holds the side of the plane llal on the bench and presses it 
lo tbe left against the beiicb-liook and work. Held in this position 
tbe plane is |tushe(| forwaid and back' until the end is smoothed. 
( 'onsidei able pi'aclict' is necessai'y to baiidle llie block-plane well. 

'I'be x( I iih-jildiw is a slioit obuie in wliicli the ciown of tbe cutter. 
Fig. 11(1, is (|uile cui\('d. It is used jo icduce surfaces rapidly. 




Fig-. 100. UsiiifjT tin- Block-Plane 
and Beiich-Hook. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



79 



The scHitch-pJanc, Fig. Ill, has a toothed c-utter whicli scratches 
fine lines along its course. It is used to roughen surfaces of hard 
wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would 
not adhere well. Some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces 




Fig-. 110. Cutter of Scrub-Plane. Fig, 111. Scratch-Plane and Scraper-Plane. 

can be i educed only hy a scratch-plane. It is also useful in {preparing 
the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be 
planed without chip])ing. By first scratching it carefully in all di- 
rections, it can then be scraped smooth. It is a^so called a semper- 
plane, because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be in- 
serted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. This 
plane-stock ])revents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions 
of the sniface. See also veneer-scraper, p. 1)1. 

The rttbbetin;/- or rebating-plane. Fig. 112, is designed for use in 
cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the Ijack of 




Fig. 112. Rabbet-Plane 



Fig-. 113. Molding-Plane. 



the picture-frames. In line with Ihe right hand corner of the cutter 
is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which fol- 



BO 



ITAXDWORK TX WOOD. 




Fijsr. 114. Result of 

Careless use of 

Rabbet-Plane. 



lows mav be cut out clean and not torn out. With the a(l<lition of a 

guiding fence it is called a pllctslcr. This may he \\<vi\ on either 

the right or left side. In the form shown in 

Fig. ]\'2. there is also a depth gage. 

In using this plane see that the corner of 

the cutter is in line with the sole, and that 

both it and the s])ur are sliaip. Set the fence 

and the stop at the ilesired width and deipth of 

the rabbet. At the hrst stioke the spur will 

score the width. 'Idiis and e\erv stroke should 

be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were 

the only one. In the eMoit to keep the fence 

pressed close to the side of the wood, the ten(h'ncy is to tilt the p'.ane 

over. This causes llie verv opposite etfect from that desired, for the 

spur runs off diagonally, as 
in Fig. 114. 

If this happens stop 
planing at once, clean out 
the recess jiroperly with a 
chisel and then pioceed. 

The iliiilo-jihiiic is much 
like the rabl)eting-])lane, ex- 
cept that it is pio\ide(l witli 
two spuis. oiii' at each side 
of the cutting ed'ie, to score 
the wood bet'oie cutting. 
The iiK.hVunj-phnii . Fig. ll-"i. as it name imhcates, is for making 

moldings (d' \ai'ious ioims: as. (piartei-iound. half-round, ogee, etc. 
'^riie hiiii/in ini-(ni(l-tir()ijrui(/- 

jihnir. l-'ig. 1 l"i. is for matching 

boaids, i. e.. uiaking a tongue 

in one to lit into a gi oove in an- 
other. See Fig. •-'('.'.». No. \-t. p. 

18-2. 

The (■in/lliir-/il(iiir. j-'ii;. 1 1 li. 

has a lli'xilile stc'l f ice which 

can \)v adjusted to any ie(|uii'ed 

arc, convex or concave, so that 

Clll'Ved SUltVces l!:av he planed. Fiir. lit). Circular-Plane. 




Fij.'-. 115. TDntruiny-and-i.nioviiicr-Pkuu'. 




WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



81 



The universal plane. Fig. 11?, is a conihination of various mold- 
ing-, rabbeting-, matching- and other planes. It is capable of nianv 
adjustments and applications. The piinciijal parts of this plane are: 
a main stocl-, A. witii two sets of transverse sliding arms, a depth- 
gage, F, adjusted by a screw, and a slitting cutte-r with stop, a sliding 
section. B. with a vertically adjustable bottom, the auxiliary center 
bottom. (', to be })laced when needed in front of the cutter as an extra 




Fig-. 117. Universal Plane, 



support or stop. This bottom is adjustable both vertically and lat- 
erally. Fences, D and E. For tine work, fence D has a lateral ad- 
justment by means of a thumb-screw. The fences can l)e used on 
either side of the plane, and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any 
desired angle up to -15°, by loosening the screws on the face. Fence 
E can be reversed for center-beading wide boards. For work thinner 
than the depth of the fence, the work may overhang the edge of the 
bench and fence E be removed. An adju.^tahle stop, to be used in 
beading the edges of matched boards, is inserted on the left side of 
the sliding section B. A great variety of cutters are supplied, such 
as: molding, matching, ■ sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow, 
round, plow, rabbet, and filletster. Special shapes can be obtained 
by order. 

The Use of the Universal Plane. Insert the ])roper cutter, adjust- 
ing it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, A. will 
project lielow the sole the proper distance for cutting. 



82 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



Fig-. 118 Iron Spokeshave. Fi<: 



119. Pattern-maker's 
Spokeshave. 



Adjust the bottom of the sliding section, B, so that the lowest 
portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cut- 
ting. Tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and then 
tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms. 
The sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet 
or bead. 

When ;ni additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary 

center bottom. C, may 
be adjusted in front 
i)f it. This may also 
1)0 used as a stop. 

Adjust one or both 
of the fences, D and 
E, and fasten witli tlio tlnunb-screws. Adjust the depth-gage, F, at 
the proper depth. 

For a dado remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the 
edges of the cutter. Insert the long adjustable stop on tlie left hand 
of the sliding section. For slitting, insert the cutter and stop on the 
right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide. 

For a cJiii infer, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood 
guides on the fences to the required angle. For (duiinfcr heading use 
in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down l)y means 
of the adjusting thumb-nut. 

There are also a number of 
planelike tools such as the follow- 
ing: 

The s/iolt'esJiare. Fig. ILS. 
w(n'ks on the same princi])le as a 
plane, except that the guiding sur- 
face is very short. This adapts it 
to work with curved outlines. It 
is a sort of regulated draw-shave. 
It is sometimes made of iron with 
ail adjustable mouth, which is a 
coinenieut form for beginnos to 
use, and is easy to sharpen. The 
pdlli rn-iiiitl-ev's spol-esjni re, Fig. 

IT.t. wbicli has a wooden frame, is better suite<l to more careful work. 
The method of using ihe spokeshave is shown ill Fig. \2i). (See p. 100.) 




Fig-. 120. Usin^ra Spokesliave. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



83 




Fig-. 121. Router-Plane. 



The router-plane, Figs. I'^l and 122, is used to lower a certain 
part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part, 

and it is j^articularly useful in cutting 
panels, dadoes, and grooves. The, cut- 
ter has to be adjusted for each success- 
ive cut. Where there are a number of 
dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it 
is Avise not to finish them one at a 
time, but to carry on the cutting of all 
together, lowering the cutter after each 
round. In this way all the dadoes will 
be finished at exactly the same depth. 

The dowel-pointer, Fig. 123, is a convenient tool for removing the 
sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. It is hehl in a brace. The 
cutter is adjustable 
and is removable for 
sharpening. 

The cornering tool. 
Fig. 12-1, is a simple 
device for rounding 
sharp corners. A cut- 
ter at each end cuts 
both ways so that it 
can be used with the 
grain Avithout chang- 
ing the position of the work. The depth of the cut is fixed. 










Fig-. 122. Using- a Router- Plane. 



2. BORING TOOLS. 

Some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some, 
like augers, remove material. 

The hrad-awl, Fig. 125, is wedge-shai^ed, and hence care needs to 

be taken in using it to keep the edge 
across the gTain so as to avoid splitting 
the wood, especially thin wood. The 
size is indicated l)y the length of the 
l)lade when ncAv, — a stupid method. The 
awl is useful for nmking small holes in 
oft wood, and it can readily be sharpened l)y grinding. 



Fig-. 123 
Dowel- 
Pointer. 



Fig-. 124 
Cornering- Tool. 



84 



HAXDWORK IX WOOD. 



n\ 



Fijr. 125 Brad-Awl. Fi<r. 126. Twist-Drill. Fig-. 12". Twist-Bit. Figf. 128. Gerinaii (iinilet- 
Bit. Fig-. 12'>. Bit-Point Drill. Fig. 130. Auger-Bit. 



'H 



m 



14, 



I 



131 132 133 134 135 13(i 

Fig. 131. Plug-Cutter. Fig. 132. Ceuter-Bit. Fig. 133. Foerstner Auger-Bit. Fig. 134. 

E-fpausive-Bit. Fig. 135. Reamer. Fig. 130. Rose Countersink. 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 85 

GimJefs and drills are alike in that they cnt away material, but 
unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while 
the cutting edge of the drill is on the end. 

Tirist-d rills. Fig. 12(5, are very hard and may be used in drilling 
metal. They are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting 
nails, as in repair work. Their sizes are indicated by a special drill 
gage, Fig. 220, p. 117. 

Twist-hits, Fig. 137, are like twist-drills except that they are not 
hard enough to use for metal. Their sizes are indicated on the tang 
in 32nds of an inch. Both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advan- 
tage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood. 

Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care 
being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that 
the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance. 

German gimlet-hits, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering 
well. The size is indicated on the tang in 33nds of an inch. They 
are useful in ])oring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. 
They cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced. 

Bit-point drills. Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are 
expensive. 

Auger-hits, Fig. 130, have several important features. The spur 
centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed 
screw draws the auger into the wood. Two sharp nil)S on either side 
score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are 
then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. The size 
of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in Kiths of an inch. 
Thus 9 means a diameter of 9/lfi". 

There are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. 
(1) One is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. A good way to 
do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and 
sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see 
that the bit is perpendicular l)oth ways. The test may also be made 
with the try-square. Fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the 
worker, or in difficult pieces, l)y a fellow Avorker. The sense of per- 
pendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. (3) Another 
precaution is that, in thru l)oring. the lioles should not be bored quite 
thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. When 
the spur pricks thru, the bit should l)e removed, the piece turned over, 
and tlie l)oring finished. i)iitting the spur in the hole which is pricked 



86 



HAXDWORK IX WOOD. 



tliru 111 l)Oi'iiig from tlie iii'st side. It is seldom necessary to press 
against the knolj of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur 
will ])nll the bit thru, especially in soft wood. Indeed, as the bit 
reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then 

when the spur pricks thru the bit will 
be ])u]led out of its hole. This avoids 
the necessity of constantly watching the 
back of the board to see if the spur is 
tbni. (o) In stop boring, as in boring 
for dowels or in making a blind mortise, 
caic should be taken not to bore thru 
tlic piece. For this purpose an auger- 
bit-gage, Fig. 219, p. 11(5, may be used, 
or a block of wood of the proper length 
tliru whieli a hole has been boi'cd, may 
be slijiped over the bit, or the length of 
bit may l)e noted before boring, and 
then the length of the i)rojecting por- 
tion deducted, or tlie number of turns 
needed to reach the re(pured depth may 
be counted on a trial piece. Tying a 
stiiiig around a l)it, or making a chalk 
mark on it is folly. 
Auger-bits aie sliai|»riUMl with an auger-lht hie. Fig. 1-12, p. 90, 
a small tlat hie witb two na.ri'ow safe edges at one end and two wide 
safe edges at the otiiur. The "nibs"* should be filed on the inside so 
that the diameter of the cut may lemain as large as that of the body 
of the iiit. The cutting li]) slundd be sharpened from the side toward 
tbc spur, care Ijcing taken to ])reserve the original angle so as to give 
clcaraJice. If shaipened fi'om the u])])er side, that is, the side toward 
tbc sbaid\', the nibs will ti'ud to becom(> shorter. 

'J'lie ji/iii/-ciill('r. Fig. 131, is useful for cutting }dugs with which 
to cover tbc beads of screws that are deeply ct)untersunk. 

Ccii/rr-hils. l-'ig. i;!2. woi'k' on the samt' ])rinci])le as auger-bits, 
except tliat tbc spurs ha\'c no screw, and hence have to l)e ])uslied 
foi'cibly into the wood. Sizes are given in l()ths of an incli. They 
arc useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in tliin material 
whicli is likely to si)lit. Tliey ai-c sharpened in the same way as 
auiicr-bils. 




Fii,'- \^l. I'-iiil;- a Try-Square as 
a Guidi- ill rjoriii^. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



87 




Foerstner hits. Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are 
centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. The size is indi- 
cated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. They are useful in boring 
into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur 
would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appli- 
ances. 

Expansive-ljUs, Fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different 
sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. There are two sizes, 
the small one with two cutters, boring from Y^" to 1^" and the 
large one with tliree cutters boring from %" to 4". They are very 
useful on particular occasions, 
but have to be used with care. 

E earners, Fig. 135, are used 
for enlarging holes already 
made. They are made square, 
half-round and six cornered in 
shape. 

CoiUltersinls, Fig. 130, arc Fig 138. Washer-Cutter. 

reamers in the shape of a flat 

cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. The rose 

countersink is the most satisfactory form. 

The ivasher-cutter. Fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting out 
washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. The size is ad- 
justable. 

3. CIIOPPIXG TOOLS. 

The primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been 
dift'erentiated into three modern hand tools, the chisel, see above, p. 
53, the ax, Fig. 139, and the adze, Fig. 141. 

The ax has also been differentiated into the hatchet, with a short 
handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use 
with two hands. Its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. It 
is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also 
in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the 
blade. The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the 
left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it 
from slipping thru the hand. In both ax and hatchet there is a two- 
beveled edge. This is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood 
at anv ane'le. 



88 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted 
ax, the hitter used chiefi_Y in lumbering. There is also a wedge- 
shaped ax for splitting wood. As among all tools, there is among 
axes a great variety for s])ecial uses. 




Fiy. 13'i. Ax. 



Fig. 140. Shiiitrliny Hatchet. Fig-. 141. Car- 

penter's Adze. 



Tlic hatchet has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails, 
and a notch f(n- drawing them, thus comlnning three tools in one. 
The shingling liatchet. Fig. 140, is a type of this. 

The ailze, the carpenter's honse adze. Fig. 141. is flat on the lower 
side, since its use is for straiti'htenino- snrfaces. 



WOOD IIAXD TOOLS. 



89 



WOOD 
References : * 

(1) Cutting. 
Goss, p. 22. 

Chisel. 

Barnaid, pp. .i!)-73. 
Seidell, pp. 44-50. 14.1-147. 
Barter, pp. 93-9(). 
Griffith, pp. .5.3-04. 

Knife. 

Barnard, pp. 48-58. 
Saw. 

Griffith, pp. 20-27. 

Barnard, pp. 114-124. 

Selden, pp. 41-43. 179-182. 

Wheeler, pp. 400-473. 

Hammacher, p]). 300-300. 
Plane. 

Barnard. i)p. 74-80. 

Selden. pp. 11-20. 105-175. 

Sickels pp. 72-75, IK!. 

Wheeler, pp. 445-458. 

Hammacher, pp. 377-400. 

(2) Boring Tools. 
Barnard, pp. 125-135. 
Goss, pp. 53-59. 
Griffith, pp. 47-52. 

(3) Chopping Tools. 
Barnard, pp. 80-88. 



HAND TOOLS. 



Smith. R. H., pp. 1-8. 

Goss, pp. 20-26. 
Sickels, pp. 64-67. 
Wheeler, 357, 421, 442. 



Selden. pp. 26-28, 158. 

Goss, pp. 26-41. 
Sickels, pp. 76-79, 84. 
Smith, R. H.. 43-55. 
Disston, pp. 129-138. 



Smith. R. H.. pp. 10-31. 
Larsson, p. 19. 
Goss, pp. 41-52. 
Barter, pp. 96-109. 
(Griffith, pp. 28-45. 

Selden. pp. 38-40. 141-144. 
Wheeler, pp. 353-356. 



^For general liibliography see p. 4. 



Chapter IV, Continued. 
WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 

-t. SCRAPING TOOLS. 

Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only al)ra(]e or 
smooth surfaces. 

Files. Figs. l-tS-l-tG, are formed with a series of cutting edges or 
teeth. These teeth are cut when tlie metal is soft and cold and then tlie 



^ 



Fifr. 142. 
FifT. 144. 
Fig. 146. 



Auger-Bit-Filf. 
Three-Square Siiis-Je-Cut File. 
Double-Cut File. 



Fig. 143. Single-Cut Blunt, Flat. Bastard Fih 
Fig. 145. Open Cut. Taper. Half-Round FiKv 
Fig. 147. Cabinet Wood-Rasp. 



Fig. 148. File-Card. 



tool is hardened. There are in use at least three thousand varities ot' 
tiles, each of whicli is adajjfed to its ])articular purpot^e. Lengths are 
measiii'ed from point to heel exeliisive of the tang. They are classified: 
(1) according to tiieii' outlines into Miiiit. (i. c., Iiaxing a uniform 
<-ross-sectioii tliiaiout ) . and taju'i-: ( "i ) accoiding to ihe .-^hapc of theii' 

90 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



91 



■I 



rig. u'K 

Diagram of a Rasp Tooth. 
Cross-Section of a Siiig-le-Cut 
File. 



cross-section, into flat, square, three-sqnare or triangular, knife, round 
or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; (3) according to the manner of their 
serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, paral- 
lel, chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of 
chisel cuts crossing each other ol)liquelY,) oj^en cut, (having series of 

parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and 
safe edge, (or side,) having one or more 
uncut surfaces; and (4) according to 
tlie fineness of the cut, as rough, bas- 
tard, second cut, smooth, and dead 
smooth. The '^"'mill file." a very com- 
mon form, is a flat, tapered, single- 
cut fllf. 
Rasps, Fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having cutting 
teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indenta- 
tions with a triangular point when the iron is soft. The difference 
between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 14!). 

It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only 
as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be 
taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. It is better to file only on 
the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and 
a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained. 

Both files and rasps can be cleaned with a 
file-card. Fig. 148. Tliey are sometimes sharp- 
ened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull 
are discarded. 

Scrapers are thin, flat pieces of steel. They 
may be rectangular, or some of the edges may 
l)e curved. For scraping hollow surfaces curved 
scrapers of various shapes are necessary. Con- 
venient shapes are shown in Fig. 150. The cut- 
ting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along 
their edges. When properly sharjiened they take off not dust but fine 
shavings. Scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained 
pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc. 

There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or han- 
dles, such as the scraper-plane. Fig. 111. p. 79, the veneer-scraper, 
and box-scrapers. The veneer-scraper. Fig. 151, has the advantage 
that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in 




Fig-. 150. 
Molding-Scrapers. 



92 



IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 




Fig-. 151. Usinpr a Veneer- 
Scraper. 



the middle of tlu' l)Mek. just ;is an ordinary scraper is wlieii lield in 
the hands. 

Jn u^e, FliS- l-">v. tlic seraper may he eithei' pushed oi- ])id cd. 
Wlicii ])iis1i(m1. ilic sciaper is lield (h-ndy in hotli liands, the lingers 

nil the I'niward and the thnndjs 
IM ^■■■MHj^H^MHHVi on the hack side. It is tilted 

I '■tim^^lffm '%^m\ '^"^ chatter and is howt'd hack 

-■•*^-^^*'* ^^- iMr sh'ghtiy, hy pics^urc of the 

thiiinhs. so that theic is no 
lisle of the co;ncis digu-inu' in. 
When |ndlci| llic position is 

1 CVi'lStMh 

< )nc method of sliai peiiim;" 
the scraper is as follows: the scraper is Hist hrought to the desired 
shape, sti'aight or eiiived. This mav he done either hv giiiKhng on 
the grindstone or hy liliiig with a smooth. Hat tie. tlie scraper, while 
held in a vise. The vi\^j:v is then carefully diaw-filed. i. e.. the Hie. a 
smooth one. is held (one hand at each end) directly at light angh's 
to the edge of the scia|'ei'. i'dg. l^;!. and moved sidewise from end to 
end (d' the sciaper. until the edge is (|uite S(piare with the sides. 
Tlien the sciaper is laid Hat on the oilstone and ruhhed. Hrst on one 
side and then on the other, till the sides ;iri' hiight and smooth along 
the i'i]i:r. l-dg. i:)4. Then it is 
set oil ('i\^j:i' oil the stone and 
rilhhed till theie ale two slcirp 
Sipiare coiners all along the 
edge. l-dg. 1.-).-). 'jdiell it is put 
ill the \isc jigaiii ami hy mean- 
of a hiirnishrr. or sciaper 
steel, hoth of these corners aic 
(••irel'iilh' t ill lied or h 'iit over 
so as to hiiin a Hue liinr. This 
is done h\" tipping the scrajier 
steel at a slight angle with the edge and rulihing it lirinly along the 
sharp corner, j-'ig. 1 •")(;. 

To I'esharpen the scia]ier it is not necessaiy to Hie it afresh e\cry 
time, hut onlv to flatten out the e<lgcs and turn them again with 




Fig-. 152. Usinjr a Cabinet- 
Scraper 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



93 




Fig. 153. 



Sharpening- a Cabinet-Scraper: 
1st Step, Drawfiling. 



slightly more bevel. Instead of using the oi'stone an easier, tho less 
perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper 
flat on the bench near the edge. The scraper steel is then passed rap- 
idly to and fro on the flat side 
of the scraper. Fig. 157. Af- 
ter that the edge should be 
turned as before. 

Sandpaper. The "sand" 
is crushed quartz and is very 
hard and sharp. Other mate- 
rials on paper or cloth are also 
used, as carborundum, emery, 
and so on. Sandpaper comes 
in various grades of coarse- 
ness from No. 00 (the finest) 

to No. 3, indicated on the back of each sheet. For ordinary purposes 
No. 00 and No. 1 are sufficient. Sandpaper sheets may readily be 
torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of the sheet project- 
ing over the square edge of the bench. With a quick downward mo- 
tion the projecting portion 
easily parts. Or it may be torn 
straight by laying the sandpa- 
per on a bench, sand side down, 
holding the teeth of a back- 
saw along the line to be torn. 
Tn this case, the smooth surface 
of the sandpaper would be against the saw. 

Sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into 
shape, but only to obtain an extra smoothness. Nor ordinarily should 
it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools 
is done, for the fine particles 
of sand remaining in the wood 
dull the edge of the tool. 
Sometimes in a piece of cross- 
grained wood rough places will 
be discovered by sandpapering. 
The surface should then be 
wiped free of sand and scraped „. ,.. ^, . _, , . 

^ ' Fitr. l55. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper 

before using a CUttino- tool 3rd step. Removing the Wire-Edge. 



< ___^ 






-===s=-^- 


^^^^-^ 


l~z = 


■ ^= 


^^ 







Fig. 154. 



Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 
2nd Step, Whetting. 




94 



HANDWORK TX WOOD. 





/ 




r 


/^^ 






r 


)\ 




^ 


^i 


V 





Fig. ISo. Sliarpi'iiintr a Cabiiiet-Scrapt-r: 
-Ith Step. Tuniiiiir ilie Edge 



again. In oidcr to avoid cross scratclies, work sliould be "sandecr" 
witli the grain, even if tliis takes niueli trouble. For flat surfaces, 
and to touch off edges, it is best to wra}) the sand])aper over a rec- 
tangular bh)ck <d' wood, of which the coi'Uers are slightly rounded, or 

it may be fitted over special 
shapes of wood for s})ecia]ly 
shaped surfaces. The objec- 
tion to using the thumb or 
lingeis instead of a l)lock, is 
ihat the soft ])ortions of the 
wood are cut down faster than 
the hai'fl portions, whereas the 
use of a l)lock tends to keep the 
suiface even. 

>7rr/ ivi>()l is made liy tui'u- 
ing off line sluivings from the 
edges of a number of thin discs 
of steel, held together in a 
lathe. There are vai'ious grades of coarseness, from No. 0(» to Xo. 3. 
Its uses ai'c manifold : as a substitute for sand])apei", especially on 
cui'ved sui faces, tti clean up )iaiiit. and to rub down shellac to an 
"egg-shell" finish. Like sandpa])er it sliould not be used till all the 
work with cutting tools is done. It can be manipulated until utteidy 
worn out. 

5. POUXDIXd TOOLS. 

The litiiiniicr consists of two distinct ])arts, the head and the 
handle. The head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be in- 
dented l)y hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, ])unches, etc., 
which ai'c com])aratively soft. It can easily be injured tho, by l)eing 
driven against steel harder than 
itself. The handle is of hick- 
0Y\ and of an oval shape to 
|u-e\('nt its twisting in the hand. 

Ilaiiiinei's may be classified 
as follows : ( 1 ) hauimei s fof 
si I'iking blows oidy ; as. f he 
l)lacksuiitirs hauimei' and the 

'.;tone-niasoM"s hauilliel', ami CI) Fig. 157. Kesharpening a Cabiaet-Scrapen 

^ Flattening the Edge. 




AVOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



95 



compound liaiuiueis, which consist of two tools combined, tlie face foi' 
striking, and the "peen" which may be a chiw, pick, wedge, shovel, 
cliisel, awl or loimd head for other uses. There are altogether about 
iifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a 
blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty 
pounds or niore. They are named mostly according to their uses; 
as, the riveting-hammer, Fig. 159, the upholsterer's hammer, Fig. 
160, the veneering-hammer. Fig. K)'^. etc. Magnetized hamuiers, 
Fig. 1()1, are used in many trades for diiving brads and tacks, where 
it is hard to ho'd them in place with the [ingers. 




Fig-. 158. Claw-Hammer, 

Fig-. IbO. Upholster's Hanitner. 



F\g. 162 Veneeriiii,'--Haninier. 



Fig-. i;<J. Rivfting-Hamnier. 
Fig-. 161. Magnetized Hammer. 



In the "bell-faced" hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order 
that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the 
surface. It is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with 
a plain-faced hammer. For ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that 
is, flat-faced claw-hammer. Fig. 158, is best. It is commonly used in 
carpenter work. 

It is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue 
in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the 



96 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 




Fig'. lt)3. Drawing a Nail witli 
Claw-Hammer. 



nail. Hammers should be used to liit iron only; for hitting wood, 
mallets are used. In striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow 
and the shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the 

liardness of the blow. The essential 
precautions are that the handle be 
grasped at the end, that the blow be 
square and quick, and that the wood 
be not injured. At the last blow the 
liammer should not follow the nail, but 
should be jjrought back with a quick 
rebound. To send the nail below the 
surface, a nailset is used. (See below.) 
The claw is for extracting nails. 
To protect tlie wood in withdrawing a 
nail a block may be put under the 
liammer-head. When a nail is partly 
drawn, the leverage can be greatly in- 
creased by continuing to block up in this way. Fig. 163. 

The mallet. Fig. 16-i, differs from the hammer in having a wooden 
instead of a steel head. A nuiul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet. 
The effect of the blow of a nuillet is quite different from that of a 
hammer, in that the force 
is exerted more gradually ; 
whereas the effect of the ham- 
mer blow is direct, immediate, 
and local, and is taken up at 
once. But a mallet continues 
to act after the first impulse, 
pushing, as it were. This is 
because of the elasticity of the 
head. A chisel, therefore, 
should always be driven with 
a mallet, foi' the chisel handle 
would soon go to pieces under 
the blows of a hammer, be- 
cause of their suddenness : 
whereas the mallet blow which 
is slower Avill not only drive 
the blade deo]3oi' with the same Fig. io4. 




WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



97 



force, but will not injure the handle so rapidly'. Mallet-heads are 
made square, C3dindrical, and barrel-shaped. Carver's mallets are 
often turned from one piece, hammer and head on one axis. 

Nailsets, Fig. 165, are made Avith hardened points, but softer 
butts, so that the hammer will not be injured. They were formerly 
made square when nail heads 
were square, but now round 
ones are common. To obviate 
shipping, some have "cup 
points,'' that is, with a con- 
cave tip, and some spur points. 

To keep the nailset in its 
place on the nail-head it may 
be held closely against the 
third finger of the left hand, 
Avhich rests on the wood close 
to the nail. When a nailset 
is lacking, the head of a brad, 
held nearly flat, may be used, 
inff the wood. 




Fig. 165. Using a Nailset. 



But care is necessarv to avoid bruis- 



6. HOLDING TOOLS. 

A. Tools for Holding AYorl-. 

The advance in ease of handworking may largely Ije measured by 
the facilities for holding materials or other tools. The primitive 
man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. The 
Japanese, who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely 
use their fingers and toes. On the other hand, Anglo-Saxons have 
developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools. 

Benches. The essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady 
table with a vise and places for tools. The joints are either pinned 
or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. The best benches 
are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tbngued-and- 
gTOOved together. It is common also to have a trough at the back 
of the top of the bench, i. e., a space fi" or 8" wide, set lower than 
the upper surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off. 
A low pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which 
to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured, 
is an advantage. The tool-rack is of cai)ital imiiovtance. It has 



98 



HANDWOEK IX WOOD. 




Piff. Ibb. Bench made with Pinned Mortise-and-Tenon Joints, Low Back. 




V'lg. 167.T Wood working- Bench used at Pratt Institute, Showing- 
Self-Adjusting- Upright Vise. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



99 



been common in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises con- 
siderably above the top of the bench, Fig. 169, but a better plan 
is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top, Fig. 166. 
Then the light on the bench 
is not obscured, and when a 
fiat top is needed for large 
work it can readily be had by 
removing the tools. E'abo- 
rate benches with lock draw- 
ers are also much used in the 
shops of large city schools. 

Visc.'^ for holding wood are 
of three general styles, (1) 
those with an upright wooden 

jaw% Fig. 167, which holds wide pieces of w^ork well. They are now 
made with an autouu^tic adjusting device by Avhich the jaw and the 
face of the bench are kept parallel; (2) wooden vises with a hori- 
zontal jaw. guided by parallel runners. Fig. 166, and, (3) metal 
rapid-acting vises. Fig. 168. The latter are the most durable and in 




Fig-. 168. 
A Rapid-Acting- Vise. 




Fig-. 169. Holding- a Large Board in Vise for Planing-. 



most respects more convenient. Special vises are also made for wood- 
carvers, for saw-filing, etc. 

The best woodworking benches are equipped Avith both side- and 
tail-vises. The tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for 



100 



haxd\vui;k IX wood. 




Fitr. no. Saw- Horse. 



holding pieces of diltei-ent lengths. In planing the side of a board 
it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. A 
board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise 

when it is to be jilaned, lest it 
be bent out of shape. In plan- 
ing the edge of a board it is 
ordinarily held in the side- 
vise. A long board, one end 
of which is in the vise, may 
also need to be supported at 
the other end. This may be 
done ]iy clamping to it a hand- 
screw, the jaw of which rests 
on thr top of the bench, Fig. 
KiM. Wlien the vise is likely 
to \k' twisted out of square by 
till' insertion of a piece of wood 
at one end of it, it is well to 
insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise 
to keep it square, as in Fig. 130, p. 82. In this case, (Fig. 120,) the 
extra ]nece also supports the piece being worked upon. 

Tlie vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes, 
hut a good worknum does not 
use it to the exclusion of the 
saw-horse and bench-hook. 

Horses are of great use 
))ot]i for the rough sawing of 
material and in supporting- 
large pieces during the process 
of construction. The common 
form is shown in Fig. 170. 
but a more convenient form 
for sawing has an o]ien top, as 
in Fig. 171. 

Tlie pli-l iirc-frfimc-vise. Fig. 
172. is a vciy coMvenient tool 

for making iiiitercd joints, as in picture-frames. The vise holds two 
sides lii'inly so that after gluing they nuiy be either nailed together 
or a spline inserted in a saw cut ]n'eviously made. See Fig. 268, 




Fig. 171. SawHorse. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



101 




Fiy. 172. 
Picture-Frame-Vise. 



No. 55, p. 181. If the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite 
match, a kerf ma}^ be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which 
can then be drawn close together. 

Handscrcu's, Fig. 1T3, consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and 

the screw jaw, made of maple, 
and the end spindle and the 
middle spindle, made of hick- 
ory. The parts when broken, 
can be bought separately. 
Handscrews vary in size from 
those with jaws four inches 
long to those with jaws twenty- 
two inches long. The best kind 
are oiled so that glue will not 
adhere to them. In adjusting 
the jaws, if the handle of the 
middle spindle is held in one 
hand, and the handle of the 
end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together, the 
jaws nuiy be closed or opened evenly, Fig. 171. In use care must be 
taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest pres- 
sure and to prevent the spindles from being broken. It is always 
important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. To secure this, 
the middle spindle should be 

tightened first, and then the 

end spindle. Handscrews are 
convenient for a great variety 
of uses, as clamping up glued 
pieces, holding pieces together 
temporarily for boring. Fig. 
247, p, 153, holding work at 
any desired angle in the vise, 
as for chamfering or beveling, 
Fig. 175, etc. 

Clamps are made of both 
wood and iron, the most satis- 
factory for speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter 
clamps. Fig. 176. They vary in length from 1>^ ft. to 8 ft. The 
separate parts are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip C 



A 



mippl£ 
Si'inoLC 

cm 



Lff 



W".ZZ-.2 



\ 



emu 



ZW 5PiriOLE 



Fiff. 173. Handscrew. 



102 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 




174. Adjusting- Handscrew. 



into which fits the screw D, on the other end of wliicli is the crank E, 

and the slide F with its dog G, which engac- - r^ t!'p notches on the 

bar. Any part, if broken, can 
1)e rophieed separately. 

I •on Uitudscrcirs, also 
called (' clamps and carriage- 
makers' clamps, Fig. 177, are 
useful in certain kinds of work, 
as in gluing in special ])laces 
and in wood-carving. All iron 
clamps need blocks of soft 
wood to be placed between them 
and the finished work. 

Pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, are a 
convenient device for drawing 
together two pieces of wood, 
when injury to the surfaces in 

which they are driven does not matter. They vary in size from ^4" 

to 2j4"- I'oi' ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. For 

especially fine work. 

double-] lointed tacks, 

properly filed, are con- 
venient. 

The hench-liDol-. 

Fig. 17!'. is a sinijilc 

device for holding 

firndy small ])ieces of 

work when they arc 

being sawn, chiseled. 

etc. It also saves the 

bench from b e i n g 

mai'i'ed. The angles 

should I)e ke])t exactly 

s<puire. 

The inllrr-ho.r. I'ig. 

180, is a similai' device 

with 1he addition of a 

guide foi' the saw. The 

iron iiiUcr-hox. Fig. 181, 




UsiiiiLr a Haiul^crcw to hold a 
lioard at an Angle. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



103 



with the saw adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work. 
Such tools as pliers. Fig. 183, pincers, Fig. 183, and nippers. 




Piy. 176. Stoel-Bar Carpenter's Clamp, a. Steel Bar. b. Frame, 
c. Tip. d. Screw, e. Crank, f. Slide, g. Dog. 



Fig. 184, made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodwork- 
ing shop. So are various sorts of tvrenches; as fixed, socketed, ad- 
justable, monkey- and pipe-wrenches. 

B. Tools for holding other tools. 

The trace or hit-stock. Fig. 185, holds all sorts of boring tools 
as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. The simple brace or 

bit-stock consists of a chuck, a 
handle, and a knob, and is suf- 
ficient for ordinary use; but 
the ratchet-brace enables the 
user to bore near to surfaces 
or corners where a complete 
sweep cannot be made. It is 
also useful where sufficient 
power can be applied only at 
one part of the sweep. By 
means of pawls which engage 
in the ratchet-wheel, the bit 
can be turned in either direc- 
Tlie size of the 




Fig. 11 



Iron Handscrew, (Carriage- 
Maker's Clamp). 



tion at the will of the user 
brace is indicated by the ''sweep,'' that is, the 
diameter of the circle thru which the swinging 
handle turns. To insert a bit or other tool. 
Fig. 186, grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve 
of the chuck pointing it upward, and revolve 
the handle with the other hand, unscrewing the 











' 1 




/ \l 



Fig-. 178. Pinch-Uog-. 



104 



HANDWOKK IX WOOD. 



s'eeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit. 
Then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place. 




Fiy. 179. Heiich-Hook. 




Fif,"^. ISO. Miter-Box. 



Various hand-, l)reast-. l)encli-, Itow-drills and automatic drills are of 
use in doing quick work and for l)oring small holes, Fig. 187. 

The screwdriver, Fig. 188, is a sort 
of holding tool for turning, and so driv- 
ing screws. Various devices have been 
tried to ])reveiit the twisting in the 
handle. This is now practically assured 
in various makes. The other important 
Hiaiter in a screwdriver is that the 
point he of the right temper, so as 
neither to hend nor to Itrcak. If the corners break they can be re- 
OTOund. l)iit care should l)c taken not to nutke the anale too obtuse 
or the dri\er will slip out of the slot in the screw-head. The bevel 
should ha\(' a long taper. A 
shop should be e(pd])ped with 
different sizes of serewdriveis 
to ht the different sizes of 
screws. Screwdrivers vary in 
size, the shank ranging in 
length fi-oui -Ij'." to is". A 
long screwdriver is more pow- 
erful than a short one. for the 




Fig-. ISl. Iron Miter-Box. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



105 



screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw, but 
the handle revolves in a circle. This means an increased leverage, so 

that the longer the screwdriver, 
the o-reater the leverage. 




For heavy work, screwdriver-bits. Fig. 189, in a bit-stock are use- 
ful, and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, Fig. 190, and for 
small work, the ratchet-screwdriver. 



It 

of the 



7. MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS. 

is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width 
thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the meas- 
uring of distances and of angles which 
vary almost infinitesimally. Xo such 
accuracy is necessary in measuring wood 
as in measuring metal, but still there 
is a considerable variety of tools for 
this purpose. 

For measuring distances, the rule, 

Mff^ Fig. 191, is the one in most common 

%fc^h. ^^^'^- -"-t ^® usually made of boxwood. 

^^ For convenience it is hinged so as to 

fold. A rule is called "two-fold" when 

it is made of two pieces, "four-fold" 

when made of four pieces, etc. ^Yhen 

measuring or marking from it, it can 

be used more accurately by turning it 

on edge, so that the lines of the gradu- 

_. ,„, - ,. „., . „. , ations mav come directlv a^'ainst the 

Fig. 186. Iii-ierting- a Bit in Stock. ■ ■ '^ 




106 



HANDWORK IX "WOOD. 




Fis-. 187. Haiid-DriU 




Fig-. 1S8. Screwdriver. 
Fig-. 189. Screwdriver-Bit. 
Fig-. 1^0. Si>iral ScrewdriTer. 




B 



ffln 



J 



Fiy. 1''2. Sled lieiicli-Kule. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



107 




Fig-. 103. Back of Steel 
Square, Brace Measure. 



work. The one in most com- 
mon nse in school shops, is a 
two-foot, two-fold rule. Some 
instructors prefer to have pu- 
pils use a four-fold rule, be- 
cause that is the form com- 
monly used in the woodwork- 
ing trades. Steel bench-rules. 
Fig. 193, are satisfactory in 
school work because unbreakable and because thev do 
not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. They need 
to be burnished occasionally. 

The steel square, Figs. 193, 191, 196, 197, is 
useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square, 
but also for a number of graduations and tables 
which are stamped on it. There are various forms, 
but tlu' one in most common use consists of a b ade 
or "body" 24"x2" and a "tongue," l()"xl^", at right 
angles to each other. Sargent's trade number for this 
form is 100. Tt includes graduations in hundredths, 
thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths 
of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square 
measure, and the Essex board-measure. Another style, 
instead of an Essex board-measure, and the hun- 
dredths graduation has a rafter-table. The side upon 
which the name of the maker is stamped, is called 
the "face,"' and the reverse side the "back."' 

The brace-measure is to be found along the center 
of the ))ack of the tongue. Fig. 193. It is used thus: 
the two equal numbers set one above the other rep- 
resent the sides of a square, and the single number 
to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the 
diagonal of that square. E. g., |^ 76.37 means that 
a square the sides of w^hich are 54" would have a 
diagonal of 70. 3T". 

For determining the length of the long side (hy- 
pothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other 
two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or an- 
other steel square mav be laid diagonally across the 



108 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



blade and arm, and applied 
directly to tlie proper grad- 
uations thereon, and the dis- 
tance between them meas- 
ured on the rule. If the dis- 
tance to be measured is in 
feet, use the 1/12" gradua- 
tions on the back of the 




Fig-. 194. Face of Steel 

Square, Octag-on, "Eig-ht- 

Square," Scale. 



square. 

To use the octagonal (or 
8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which is along the c 'liter 
of tlie face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the 
nuiulier of spaces in the scale to correspond with the 
number of inches the piece of wood is square, and 
lay this distance off from the center point, on each 
edge of the board. Connect the points thus obtained, 
diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact oc- 
tagon will he had. E. g., on a lioard 12" square. 
Fig. 1 !>.-). find A.F).('.r).. the centers of each edge. 

Xow with the 
dividers take 12 
spaces from the 
S-square scale. 
Lay otf this dis- 
tance on each 
side as A' A" 
from A, B' B" 
from B, etc. 
Xow connect A" 
with B', B" with 
(". (•" with D', 
D" with A', and 
the octagon is 
obtained. 

In making a 
S(]uare ])iece of 
timber octagonal, the same method is used on the 
butt, sawed true. When the distance from one cen- 
ter is laid olT. the marking-gage may be set to the 




Fig. 1"5. Method of Using the Eight- 
Square Scale on the Steel-Square. 



— <o - ~ -^; 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



109 



Fig-. 1%. Back of Steel 

Square, Essex Board 

Measure. 



distance from the point 
thus obtained to the corner 
of the timber, and t]ie jjiece 
gaged from all four cor- 
corners both ways. Cut- 
ting off the outside arrises 
to the gaged lines leaves an 
octagonal stick. 

The board-measure is stamped on the back 
of the blade of the square, Fig. 190. The fig- 
ure 13 on the outer edge of the blade is the 
starting point for all calculations. It repre- 
sents a 1" board, 13" wide, and tbe snuiller fig- 
ures undei' it indicate the length of boards in 
feet. Thus a board 13" wide, and 8' long meas- 
ures 8 square feet and so on down the column. 
To use it, for boards other than 13" wide: — 
find the length of the board in feet, under the 
13" marked on the outer edge of the blade, then 
run right or left along that line to the width of 
the board in inches. The number under the 
width in inches on the line showing the length 
in feet, gives the board feet for lumber 1" thick. 

For example, to measure a board 1-1' long, 
and 11" wide, — under the figure 13, find 1-1 
(length of the board) ; to the left of this, under 
11 is the number 13.10; 13' lo" is the board- 
measure of the board in question. Since a board 
13' long would have as many board feet in it as 
it is inches wide, the B.M. is omitted for 13' 
boards. Likewise a board 6' long would have ^ 
the number of board feet that it is inches wide. 
If the board is shorter than the lowest figure 
given (8) it can be found by dividing its double 
by 3. ; e. g., to measure a board 5' long and 9" 
wide, take 10 under the 13, run to the left of 
the number under 9, which is 7' 6"; ^ of this 
would be 3' 9", the nuud)er of board feet in the 
board. 




>- ---to — 



110 



IIANDWOKK IN WOOD. 



If the board to bu meas- 
ured is longer than any fig- 
ure given, divide the length 
into two parts and add the 
result of the two ^larts ob- 
taiiKMJ se})arately. For ex- 
aiHi)le. for a l)oard 'i-\' long 
and lo" wide. — take I'^'xlo" 




Fig-. 197. 

Steel Square with 

Rafter Table. 



to it. ]l'xi:r' = n' 11' 



total. 



=13: add 
24' 11". 

A good general rule is to think fii'st whether 
or not the problem can be done in one's head 
without the assistance of the square. 

The table is made, as its name, Board-Meas- 
ure (B.M.) implies, for measuring boards, which 
are coin moldy 1" thick. For material more than 
1" thick. iiiiilti})ly the B.^F of one surface by 
tlic miiiibcr of inches thick the piece measures. 

The rafter-table is found on the back of 
the body of the square. Fig. 1!»7. Auxiliary 
to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the 
outside edges, which may represent either feet 
or inches. 

By the "■'run" of the rafter is meant the hor- 
izontal distance Avhen it is set in place from the 




Fig. Ifi8. The "Run" and "Rise" 
of a Rafter. 



end of its foot to a i)lumb line from the ridge 
end, i. e., one half the width of the building, 
Fio;. 198. Bv the ''rise'' of the rafter is meant 
the porpendicidar distance from the ridge end 




WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



Ill 



to the level of the foot of the rafter. By the jiitch is meant the 
ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the 
building. In a ^ pitch, the rise equals the run, or ^ the width of 
the building: in a 1/3 pitch the rise is 1/3 the width of the 



,1:0. 



l,]?l,r.l.i?l,i,l,ii'l.i.l.ia.i.l.iPl 



4-4 


-18 " 


3-9 


■16 


.1-4 


14 


2-9 


■IZ . 




Fig-. 199. Lumberman's Board Rule. 

building; in a ^ pitch the rise is ^ the width of the building. 

To find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find 
the required pitch, at the left end of the table. Opposite this and 
under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will 
be found the length of the rafter; e. g., a rafter having a run of 13' 
with a J4 pitch, is 13' 5" long, one with a run of 11' and a 1/3 pitch, 
is 13' 3x^3-", one with a run of 7' and a f pitch, is 11' 2^^" 
long, etc. 

When the run is in inches, the readings are for 1/13 of the run 
in feet; e. g., a rafter with a run of 13" and a ^ intch is ISy^g-", 
one with a run of 11" and a 1/3 pitch, is 13x^2-". "Where the run 




Fig-. 200. Try-Square. Fig. 201. Miter-Square. Fig-. 202. Sliding T Bevel. 



is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; 
and add together; e. g.. a rafter Avith a run of 11' 6", and a ^ 
pitch, is 15' 6yV" + 8y'^"=l(r 3yv". 

The lumhcrman's 'board-rule. Fig. 199. To measure wood by it, 
note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. The 



112 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



^ 



\ 



^M^L^ 






Fig-. 203. Using- the Try-Square. 



lot nearest the widtli (measined in inches) gives the B.M. for lum- 
)er 1" thick. 

The fn/-s(ju(irc. V\u:. •?()(). whicli is most commonly used for nieas- 

uiing the accuracy of right 
angles, is al^o convenient for 

» testing the width of a Ijoard 

at various places along its 
length, tor making short meas- 
urements, and as a guide in 
laying out lines with a pencil 
or knife at right angles to a 
sill fat-e or etlge. The sizes are 
\ai'ious and are indicated l)y 
tlie length of the hlade. A 
■oii\ fiiicnt size for the indi- 
- idiial hench and lov ordinary 
use has a hlade (>" long. It 
is also well to have in the shop 
one large one with a 12" hlade. 
In testing the sipiareness of woi'k with the try-square, care must 

be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the suiface fiom 

which the test is made, and llini slijjjM'd down till tlie hlade touches 

the edge being tested. 

Fig. 203. The edge 

shiudd be teste(l at a 

liuiidtei' of ])|aees in the 

same way: that is, it 

should not be slid along 

the piece. The try-square 

is also of great use in 

scril)ing lines across 

hoards. Fig. 204. A 

good method is to put 

the point of the knife at 

the beginning of the de- 
sired line. slide the 

square along until it 

touches the knife-blade: then, holding the head of the square firmly 

against tli«' vi\:j:i\ draw the knife along, pressing it lightly againsr 




^^"■..^(14. ScriliinLT with Kiiifc 
by Try-Scjuare. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



113 



the blade, holding it ijerpendicularly. To prevent the knife from 
1 iinning aAvay from the bhide of the try-square, turn its edge slightly 
towards the blade. 

The miter-square. Fig. ^01, is a try-square fixed at an angle of 45". 

The sliding T level. Fig. 
203, has a blade adjustable to 
any angle. It may be set 
either from a sample line, 
drawn on the wood, from a 
given line on a protractor, 
from drawing triangles, from 
the graduations on a framing 
square, or in other ways. It 
is used similarlv to the T- 




Fig-. 205. Windiiig--Sticks, 12 inches Long-. 



square. 

Winding-sticl-s, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of 
exactly the same width thruout. They are used to find out whether 
there is any twist or "wind" in a Ijoard. This is done by placing 
them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other 
at the other end. By sighting across them, one can readily see 
whether the board be twisted or not. Fig. 206. The blades of two 
framing-squares may be used in the same manner. 

Compasses or diviilcrs. Fig. 20;, consist of two legs turning on a 
joint, and having sharpened points. A convenient f(n'm is the wing 
divider which can be accurate'y adjusted by set-screws. A pencil 
can be substi- 
tuted for the re- 
movable point. 
They are used 
for describing 
circles and arcs, 
for spacing, for 
measuring, for 
subdividing dis- 
tances, and for 

scribing. In scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg 
follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks 
the desired line. Used in this way they are very convenient for mark- 
ing out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being 
substituted for the steel point. 




Fig. 201). Method of Usintr the Windiiifr-Sticks. 



114 



HANDWOKK IN WOOD. 



The beam-compass. Fig. 308, consists of two trammel-points run- 
ning on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. It is 
used for describing large circles. A pencil may be attached to one 
point. 

Calipers, outside and inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the 
accurate gaging of diameters, as in Avood-turning. 






iat=^ 




Fig-. 207. Winytd Dividers. Fig-. 208. Beani-Compass or Trammel Points. 
Fi«-.209. Outside Calipers. Fi<r. 210. Inside Calipers. 



The marhing-gage. Fig. 211, consists of a head or block sliding 
on a beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. On 
the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing. 
Projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be 
filed to a flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the 
edge toward which the gage is to be moved. Fig. 212. It should pro- 
ject about y^" from the beam. If the spur be at all out of place, as 
it is likely to be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. Hence 
it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always 
to measure with the rule from the head to the spur. Fig. 213. 

In use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its 

corner, Fig. 214. In this way 
r 























.1.1.1,1,1,1,1. ll 




I 






1/ 



FifT. 211. MarkinfT-tiag-e 



Fi},f. 212. Spur of Markinj>--Gage. 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



115 



the depth of the gage line can be regulated. Ordinarily, the finer 
the line the better. The head must ahvays be kept firmly pressed 
against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump 




Fig-. 213. Settino- a MaiKiiii;-! 



away from its desired course. Care should also be taken, except in 
rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the 
sake of the appearance of the finished work. To secure accuracy, all 
gaging on the surface of wood, shouVl be done from the "working 
face" or "workins; eda-e."' 



It is sometimes advisable, as 
their edges with a marking- 
gage, because the marks will 
show after the chamfer is 
planed off. A pencil mark 
should be made instead. For 
this purpose a pencil-gage may 
be made by removing the spur 
of a marking-gage, and boring 
in its place a hole to receive a 
pencil stub with a blunt point, 
or a small notch may be cut 
in the back end of the beam, 
in Avhich a pencil point is held 
while the gage is worked as 
usual except that its position 
is reversed. For work requir- 
ing less care, the pencil may 



in hiving out chamfers, not to mark 




Fig-. 214. Using the Marking-Gage. 



U(. 



HANDWORK IX AVOOD. 




Fiy. 215. Marking'-Gag'e fur Curve;^ 



be held in the manner usual in 
writing, the middle finger serv- 
ing as a guide, or a pair of 
pencil compasses may be used, 
one leg serving as a guide. A 
special gage is made for gag- 
ing curved lines. Fig. 215. 

The cutting-gage, Fig. "216, is similar to a marking-gage, except 
that it has a knife-point insi-rted instead of a spur. It is very useful 
in cutting up soft, thin wood even as tliick as '4". 

The s/itfiiig-gagc is used in a sim- 
ilar way, but is hirger and has a handle. 
The iiiortisc-gfigi'. Fig. 217, is a 
iiiarkiiig-gage with two s|nirs. with 
wliich two pai'allel lines can lie drawn 
at once, as in laying out moitises. One 
form is made entirely of steel having, 
instead of spurs, discs with sharp- 
ened edges. 

The xrnitch-iiirl . Fig. 218. lias a 
long, slender point wliieli is useful not <tidy Un- marking Hues, but 
for centering. 

The (iiigcr-tiit-giif/r. Fig. 
21!>. is a convenient tool tor 
measuring the depth of holes 
boied. but foi' oi'diuary ]uir- 
poses a block of wood sawn 
to the i»ro])er length thru 
which a bole is bored, is a 
satisfactoiy substitute. 

Scrcir- find ii-irc-gagcs, Fig. 220. are usefid in measuring the 
lengths and sizes of screws and wire wlien lifting or ordering. 

The spirit-level, and the /iliinih-liin' which it has largely replaced, 
are in constant use in carpeiiti'iing. but are rarely needed in shopwork. 




Cuttiii<jr-(iaLre. 




Fiir. 217. Knller M(lI•li^e-GaKt 



=^^ 



Fife'. 21X. Scratcli-Awl. 



Fig. 219. Aujfer-Bit-Gag-e 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 



117 



Blacl'board coiitixisse-s. triangles, etc., are convenient accessories 
in a woodworking classroom. 

8. SlfAKPENING TOOLS. 

The griuclsfoiie for woodworking tools is best when rather fine 
and soft. The grinding surface should be straight and never concave. 
The stone should run as true as possible. It can be made true by 








a. Screw-Gag-e. 



Fitr. 220. Screw- and Wire-Gages. 

b. Wire-Gag-e. c Twist Drill-Gag-c. 



using a piece of 1" gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone 
when run dry. Power grindstones usually have truing devices attached 
to them. Fig. 221. A common form is a hardened steel screw, the 
thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they 
both revolve, shears off the face of the stone. The suiface should 
always be wet when in use l)otli to carry oft' the paiticles of stone 
and steel, and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to 
keep the tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which 
would show by its turning blue. But a grindstone should never 
stand in water or it would rot. 



118 



HANDWORK IX WUOU. 



It is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a 
cisternlike hox under it, Fig. 221. In this box the sediment will 
settle while the water overliows from it into the drain. Without 
snch a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain. 
The box is to be em^jtied occasionally, before the sediment overflows. 





i 







liL^ 221. Power Grindstone. 



In order tliat the tool iiia\ he ground aecurately, there ai'e vari- 
ous devices for holding it tirmly and steadily against the stone. A 
good one is shown in Figs. 221 and 222. This device is constructed 
as follows: A board A is made 2" thick, 6" wide, and long enough 
when in ])osition to reach from the floor to a point above tlie level 
of tlu' top ot tlie stone. It is beveled at the lower end so as to jest 
snugly against a t'h'at nailed down at the proper place on tlie floor. 
T\\Q hoard is held in jilace by a loop of iron. B, which hooks into 
the holes in the trough of the grindstone. In the hoard a series of 
holes (say l" in diameter) are bored. These run ])arallel to the 
floor Avhen the board is in ])lace, and receive the end of the tool- 



WOOD HAND TOOLS. 



119 



holder. The tool-hokler consists of four parts: (1) a strip C, 1^^" 
thick, and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. The for- 
ward end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the 
holes in the main board A. Its length is determined by the distance 




Fig. 222. Grinding Device. 

from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole 
in A, into which the rear end is to be inserted. It is better to use 
as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down. 




Fig. 223. Holder for Grinding- Cnisels or Plane-Bits 



the stick will still be serviceable; (8) a strip, D, of the same width 
as A and %" thick, and 15" to 18" long; (3) a cleat, E, ^"x^", 
nailed across D; (4) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, F,. 



120 



llAXD\VUi;K IN WOOD. 



wiiR'li })asses Hroiuid tlie farther end of tlie two striptr, C and D, aiid 
is fastened loosely to D by staples or screws. 

The tool to be ground slips lietwi'L'n this loop and the strip C, and 
is held firndy in place by the pressure applied to the bad-; end of D, 
which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum K. 

Anv desired l)e\cl iiuiy \)v ohtainiMl on the tool to ])e sliai'peneiK 
bv cboosing tlie pi-o[)er hole in A for llic l>;ick end of (' or by ad- 
just iiig the tool L'oiward or backward in tlie chunp. As much pres- 
suu' mav be |)ut on the tool as the driving belt will stand without 
sli})i)ing off. 

A still simjtler bolder for the })liUic-l)it only, is a stiip of wood 
1^" tliick and "2" wide, cut in the sliape (i shown in Fig. '^'^o. The 
l)lanc-bit fits into the saw-kerf K. and in gi'inding is easily held 
firndy in })lace l)y the hand. By inserting the rear end of the stick 
(t into a higher or lower hole in the hoaid A. any desired angle may 
be obtained. G is shown in ])osition in Kig. "i'M. 

All such devices necessitate a ))eifeetly true stone. The essential 
features are. to have a rigid support against wbieh the tool may be 
pushed hv tlie revohing stone, to liold the tool at a tixt'd ang'e which 
mav be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stoiu' with etui- 
siderable pressure. The wheel should levolve toward the edge which 

is heiiig ground, for two rea- 
sons. It is easier to bold the 
tool steadily thus, and the 
danger of |)roducing a wire 
edge is lessened. The edge as 
it becomes thin, tends to 
^|)ring away from the stone 
and this tendeney is aggra- 
\iite(l if the stone revolves 
awa\' from the t'dge. If the 
stone does not run true and 
there is a e(»nse(|uent danger 
of digging into the stone with 
the tool wbieh is lieing sharpened, the stone would h-tter levolve 
awav from the alj^r. The grinding should eontiniie until the ground 
suiface reaches the cutting edge and there is no briglit line left along 
the edge. If the gi'inding is continued beyond this ]>oint. nothing is 
gained, and a hea\v wire edge will be lormed. 




Fig-. 224. Atracite (■.rintler. 



WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 121 

A very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold 
as the "AgacUe grinder,' ' has a number of different shaped g-rinding 
stones made chiefly of carborundum. 

The oilstone. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is 
done on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found 
near Hot Springs, Arkansas. Tlie fine white ones are called Arkan- 
sas stones, and the coarser ones Washita stones. Tlie latter are better 
for ordinary woodworking tools. The India oilstone, an artificial 
stone, Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. 
It is made in several grades of coarseness. The 
medium grade is reconunended for ordinary shop 
use. Oil is used on oilstones for the same pur- 
pose as water on a grindstone. When an oil- 



stone becomes hollow or uneven by iise, it may ^'^- ^■^^- siipstone. 

be trued by rubbing it on a Hat board covered 

with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a l)\x'k of wood. 

Slipstones, Fig. 225, are small oi'stones, made into various shapes 
in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc 

Files are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. See 
above, p. 00. 

9. CLEANINC4 TOOLS. 

The hcncJi duster. One may be noted hanging on the bench shown 
in Fig. 1()6, p. 98. Bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are 
essential if the shop is to be kept tidy. 

Buffer. Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is 
available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very 
valuable for ^Dolishing tools. The addition of a little tripoli greatly 
facilitates the cleanina;. 



■'Made by the Empire Implement Co., Albany, N. Y 



122 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 



AVOOD HAND TOOLS. — Continued. 



References:* 



(4) Scraping Tools. 

Barnard, pp. 136-142. 
Wheeler, pp. 465, 473. 



Griftitli, pp. 71-75. 
Selden, pp. 149, 177, 182. 
Hodgson, I, pp. 61-74. 



(5) Pounding Tools. 

Barnard, pp. 24-47. 

Sickels, p. 70. 

Wheeler, ]ip. 414, 428-432. 



Selden. pp. 31, 111, 156. 
C^oss, p. 60. 
Barter, p. 128. 



(6) Punching Tools. 
Barnard, p. 29. 
Wheeler, p. 433. 



Selden. p. 161. 



(7) Gripping Tools. 
For holding work: 

Goss. p. 63. 

Wlieeler, pp. 65-75, 475. 
For holding other tools: 

Goss. pp. 56-59. 



Sehh'U. pp. 140, 147, 186, 194. 
Ihiiiiniaclier, ]ip. 286-291. 

Selden. p. 143. 



BiiihUiiri Troflcs Pocketbook. pp. 234- 



(8) Measuring and Marking Tools. 
Goss, pp. 9-20. 
Griffith, jip. 9-19. 
Hodgson, The Steel 8(iyare. Selden, pp. 149. 150-152, 175. 
Wheeler, p. 465. Sargent's Steel Squares. 

Tate, pp. 21-25. 



[9) Sharpening Tools. 

Barnard, pp. 136-142. 
Sickels, pp. 80-85. 
Wheeh'r, pp. 480-488. 



Selden, pp. 153, 162, 172. 180. 
Goss, pp. 39. 64-69. 



^■'For general hihliograpliy see p. 4. 



Chapter V. 



WOOD FASTEXIJvTGS. 



9 



The following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are 
fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges, 
and locks. 

NAILS 

Nails, Fig. 226, may be classified according to the material of 

which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. Iron nails 

may be galvanized to protect them from rust. Copper and brass nails 

are used where they are sul)ject to much danger 

of corrosion, as in boats. 

Nails may also be classified according to the 

process of manufacture ; as, cut nails, wrought 

nails, and wire nails. Cut nails are cut from a 

plate of metal in such a way that the width of 

the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate, 

and the length of the nail to the width of the 

plate. In the third dimension, the nail is 

wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at 

the head. Unless properly driven, such nails 

ai'e likely to split the wood, but if properly 

driven they are very firm. In driving, the 

wedge should spread with and not across the 

giain. 

Wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have 

little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking, 

as when clinched. Horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort. They 

are of the same shape as cut nails. 

Wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed, 
headed, and roughened by machinery. They are comparatively cheap, 
hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely 
displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched. 



Fig-. 220. a. Cut nail, 
cominon. b. Flat-head 
wire nail, No. 1, com- 
mon, c. Finishing-nail, 
or brad. 



123 



124 



JlAXUWOIiK IX WOOD. 



Nails ajo also classitic'd aci-ordiiio- to thr sliajic of their heads; 
as, common oi' ilat-lieads, and hrads or finishing nails. Flat-heads 
are used in ordinary work, wheie the lieads are not to he siud\ in 
the wood or "set." 

Koine nails get their names fiom their s])i'eial uses; as, shingle- 
nails, trunk-nails. l:)oat-nails. lath-nails. ]»i(tnic-nails. harrel-nails, etc. 
The size of nails is indicated hy the length in inches, and l)y the 
size of the wire for wire nails, 'i'he old iioiuencdatuie for cut nails 
also survives, in which certain numhi'is arc picfixed to "penny."' For 
example, a thiee])enny nail is 1'4" long, a fourpenny nail is 1^" 
long, a tivejienny nail is l-)4" long, a sixpenny nai is 2" long. In 
othei' words, from thiecpennv to t<'n])('iniy '4" is ailded f(U- each 
penny, Init a twelveiH'nny nail is -5 '4" long, a sixteenpcnny nail i;- 
'i/'i" long, a t\venty|)enny nail is 4" long. This is explained as mean- 
ing that "tenjienny" nails, for example, i-ost ten})ence a hundred. 
Anothei' explanation is that (U'igina ly looo of such nails weighed 
a pound. 'File size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. Xails 
are sold l)y the pound. 

The advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily ap- 
plied, they are strong and chea]). and the work can he separated, the 
with difficulty. The disadvantages are the a])pearancc and, in some 
cases, the insecurity. 

The holding power of nails nuiy he inci'cased hy driving them 

into the wood at other than a right angle. es])ecially where several 

nails unite two i)ieces of wood. By driving some at 

oiH' inclination and sonu' at another, they hind the 

])ieccs of wood together with much gi eater f(U'ce than 

*pp when dri\cn in straiglit. 

' The term hrads was once confined to small fin- 

ishing nails, l)ut is now used for all finishing nails, 
in di-tiiu-tion from comnion or llat-headed nails. The 
lieads aie made round iiisl(ad of flat so that they may 
he si't easily with a nailset and the ho'e filled with 
a plug, or, where the wood is to he painted, with 
l)utty. They aic used for intei'ior finishing and othei' nice work. 

Tdcl's, j-'ig. •.'•??, vary in size and shaiie at-cording to their use; 
as. flat-hea(le(|. gimp. iouiid-hea(le(l. and douhle-jiointcMl ov nuitting 
tacks, a soi'l of small staple. Their size is imlicaied hy the word 
"ouiu-e." Foi' example, a t\vo-(miiee tack is '4" long, a three-ounce 




Yig. 227. Tack. 



AVOOD FASTENINGS. 



125 




Figr. 228. Corrugated 
Fastener. 



tack is ^" long, a four-ounce tack is 7/16" long, a six-ounce tack is 
Yz" long, etc. This term once meant the numher of ounces of iron 
required to make 1000 tacks. 

Tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as 
veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. Tinner's tacks, which are 
used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. Wire tacks, 
altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks 
because they lack a sharp point, which is es- 
sential. 

Corrugated fasteners, Fig. 328, or fluted 
nails, are used to fasten together tAvo pieces 
of wood by driving the fastener so that one- 
half of it will be on each side of the joint. 
Their size is indicated by the length and the 
number of corrugations, as Yz" , four. They 
are often useful Avhere nails are impracticable. 

Glaziers' points are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten 
glass into sashes. 

SCREAVS 

(a) Wood-screws, Fig. 229, may be classified by the material of 
Avhich they are made; as, steel or brass. Steel screws may be either 
bright, — the common finish, — blued by heat or acid to hinder rust- 
ing, tinned, or bronzed. Brass scrcAvs are essential wherever rust 
Avould be detrimental, as in boats. 

(b) ScieAvs are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round- 
headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed 
screAvs. Flat-heads are most commonly used. There are also special 
shapes for particular purposes. Eound-heads may be used either for 
decoration or where great clraAving power is desirable. In the latter 
case, Avashers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them 
from sinking into the Avood. Oval-heads are used decoratively, the 
head filling the countersunk hole, as Avith flat-heads, and projecting 
a trifle besides. They are much used in the interior finish of raiJAvay 
cars. They are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest. 

The thread of the scrcAV begins in a fine point so that it may 
penetrate the wood easily Avhere no hole has been bored as is often 
the case in soft wood. The thread extends about two-thirds the 
length of the screAv. Anv longer thread Avould onlv Aveaken the 



126 



IIANDAVORK IX WOOD. 



screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not 
need friction with the piece thru which it passes. 

Tlie size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by 
the diameter of the wire lidin wliicli tliey are made, using the stand- 
ard screw-gage. Fig. '-^■-^<i. p. IIT. They vary in size from Xo. 
(less than 1/16") to Xo. oO (more than T/Ki") in diameter, and in 
length from Y\" to G". 

The following is a good 
general rule for the use of 
screws: make the hole in the 
piece tliru which the screw 
passes, large enough for the 
screw to slip thru easily. 
Countei-sink this hole enough 
to allow tlie head to sink iiush 
with tbe surface. Make the 
bole in the piece into which 
the screw goes small enough 
for tbe thread of the screw to 
catch tight. Then all tbe 
strength exerted in driving, 
goes toward drawing tbe pieces 
together, not in overcoming 
frietion. The hole must be deep enough, especially in bard wood and 
for l)rass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking 
the screw. Soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving 
of screws. Where it is desiral)le tbat tbe beads do not show, a hole 
may iirst be bored with an auger-bit large t'uougb to receive the head 
and dee]) enough to insert a ]ihig of wood, wbicb is cut out witb a 
plug-cutter. Fig. lot. ]). S4. and glued in place. If pains are taken 
to iiiatcb tbe grain, tlu' scar tbus I'onued is inconsi)icuous. 

In rough woik. tbe screw may be driven into ])lace witb a ham- 
nu'i' tbi'u luost of its length, and then a few tinal turns be given 
witb a sci-ew(lri\('r. but tbis brinks tlu' tibeis of tlu' wood and weaken^ 
tbeir bobl. \\\ '-(Irive-sci cws." Fig. 'l'l\\ c tlu: slot is not cut a'l tbe 
wav across tbe bead, in older tbat tbe blows of tbe baiunu'i' may not 
close tbe slot. 

Tbe ad\■antage^ of screws are. tbat tbey are very strong and tbat 
tbe woi'k can easily be taken apai't. If tbey loosen tbey can be 




Fifr. 22^>. a. Flat-head Wood-screw, 

b. Round-head Wood-screw. c. FiUister- 
head Wood-screw. d. Oval-couiitersunk- 
head Wood-screw, e. Drive-screw, f. Square- 
head (lag-or coach-) Screw. 



WOOD FASTE^riXGS. 



127 



retighteiied. The disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that 
they take time to insert, that they show very phiinly. and that tliey 
do not hold well in end grain. 




Fig-. 230. a. Stove- 
bolt, b. Carriagre-bolt. 
c. Machine-bolt. 



BOLTS 

Bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. There 
are three chief varieties, Fig. 230. 

Stove-holts are cheaply made (cast) bolts 
having either flat or round heads with a. slot for 
the screwdriver, like ordinary screws. 

Carriage-holts are distinguished by having 
the part of the shank which is near the head, 
square. 

Machine-holts have square, hexagonal, or 
button heads. 

Macliine-scrctts, Fig. 231, are similar to 
stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are meas- 
ured with a screw-gage. The varieties are, a, 
flat-head, h. round-head, c, fillister-head, d, oval- 
countersunk-head, all with slots for screwdriver. 
Plates^ Fig. 332, include corner-irons, straight 
plates and panel-irons. These are made of 
either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in 
stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc. 

Doirel-rods. Dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from 3/16" to 1" 
in diameter, and 3(i", 4"3", and 48" long. They are commonly made 
of birch or maiflc, but ma])le is more satisfactory as it shrinks less 
and is stronger than biich. 

Dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as 

a substitute for mortise-and- 
tenon joints. 

There is, to be sure, a prej- 
udice against dowels on the 
part of cabinet-makers due, 
jns^ibly, to the willingness to 
have it appear that doweling 
is a device of inferior me- 
chanics. But doweling is 
cheaper and quicker than ten- 




Fig-. 231. Machine-scre-ws. a. Flat-head. 

b. Round-head. c. Fillister-head. d. Oval- 

couutersunk-head. 



128 



HAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 



oning, and there arc many places in wood construction where it is 

jnst as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. Certain 

parts of even the best furniture are so put together. 

Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. They are dipped in glue 

and driven into brad-aAvl holes. 

Wedges a r e 
commonly used in 
door construction 
between the edges 
of tenons and the 
insides of mor- 
tises Avhich are 
slightly beveled, 
No. 34, Fig. 366, 
p. 179. Or the 
end of a tenon 
may be split to re- 
M36. The Mind wedge is used in the 




Straight plate, c. Panel-iron 



ceive the wedges, Xo. o."). Fig. 
fox-tail joint, Xo. ?,(l Fig. 266. 



GLUE 

nine is an infci'ior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds, — animal 
glue and fisli glue. Animal glue is made of l)ones and trimmings, 
cuttings and licsliings from hides and skins of animals. Sinews, 
feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. Cattle, 
calves, goats, pigs, hoi>('s, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues. 

The best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in 
lime water until fatty oi' ])a]-tly decayed matter is eaten out and only 
the glue is left. The i)i'odiict i< ch-aned, boiled down and dried. 

The best and clearest h(me glues are obtained liy leaching the 
hones with dilute acid which ilissolves out the lime salts and leaves 
the gelatinous matters. Such leached bone is sold as a glue stock, 
under the name of "'osseine.'" This material together with hides, 
sinews, etc., has the gelatin or g'ue extracted i)y i)oiling again and 
again, just as soup stock might be boiled si'veral times. Fach extrac- 
tion is called a "run." Sometimes as many as ten or tiftccn runs 
ai-e taken from llie same kettle of stock, and each may be finished 
alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a 
a'rcat variety of commercial glues. 



WOOD FASTENINGS. 129 

Manufacturers use many tests for giue^ such as the viscosity or 
running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of 
set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested be- 
tween the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only 
once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or ad- 
hesive tests. This latter varies so much with different materials that 
what may be good glue for one inaterial is poor for another. 

Putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade 
10 to 160, 10 being the poorest. The higher standards from 60 and 
upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and 
grease. The lower standards are chiefly Ijone glues, used for sizing 
straw hats, etc. They are rigid as compared with the flexibility of 
hide glues. For wood joints the grade should be TO or over. For 
leather, nothing less than loo should be used, and special cements 
are better still. 

The best glue is transparL'ut. hard in the cake, free from spots, 
of an amber color, and has little or no smell. A good practical test 
for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like. 
The more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. Poor 
glue dissolves. Glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white 
in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby. 

Fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of flsh. 
Isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of 
certain flsh, as cod and sturgeon. 

Liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. The 
LePage liquid glue is made in Gloucester, Mass., one of the greatest 
fish markets in the country. Liquid glue is very convenient because 
alwavs ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive 
odor. Liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non- 
ge'atinizing, which can be done by several means : as, for instance, 
by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue so- 
lution. 

To prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough 
cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and 
heat in a glne-pot or double boiler. Fig. 243, p. 148. The fresher 
the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. When used 
it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream, 
so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. Two sur- 
faces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated 



130 IIANUWOKK IN WOOD. 

by a mass of glue. It is esseutial that the glue be hot and the wood 
warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the 
surfaces are forced together. Glue holds best on side grain. End 
grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the 
pores. Pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary 
way. but such joints are seldom good. Surfaces of hard wood that 
are to be glued should iirst be scratched with a scratch-plane. Fig. 
Ill, p. :9. 

To make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate 
to fifty i3arts of glue. It will harden when exposed to the air and 
light and be an insoluble liquid.* 

General directions for gluing^ Before applying glue to the parts 
to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them tempo- 
rarily without glue, to see that all the parts fit. When it is 
desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction, 
should not 1)0 glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax, 
soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. Since hot glue sets quickly^ 
it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as 
soon as possible. One must learn to work fast but to keep cool. To 
expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the ])i'ocess 
is begun, clam^Ds, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the 
blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet, 
try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required. 

Whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each 
step can be taken Avith more deliberation. For example, in assem- 
bling framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels 
into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were. 
Time is thus saved for the final assend)ling when haste is imperative. 
The superfluous glue around the dowe's should be carefully Aviped off. 

Likewise in gluing wj) framed pieces, sections may be put together 
separately: as, the ends of a tabh', and Avhen they are dry then the 
whole may be assembled. When the pieces are together the joints 
should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no 
tAvists. 

A good Avay to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on 
the inside, corner to corner, as in Fig. 294, p. 195. Such a brace 



■For reci|i('s for tliis ;uul other yhies, s^ee Woodcraft, May "07, p. 49. 
"For s]iccial diicctiniis. for jKirticular joints, seo under the A'arious joints, 
;Chap. \'ir.) 



WOOD FASTENINGS. 



131 



should be provided when tlie tiial assembly is made. Another good 
way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally op- 
posite posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners 
toward each other until the frame is square. 

The superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp 
cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. Or by waiting a 
few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled 
olf with an edge tool. Either of these ways makes the cleaning easier 
than to let the superfluous glue harden. 

The work when glued should remain at least six hours in the 
clamps to harden. 

HINGES 

Hinges, Fig. 233, are made in several forms. The most common 
are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as 
in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of wliich are long and 
strap-shaped ; the Tee-hinge, one leaf of whicli is a Initt, and the 
other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a 
right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding 
table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint; 
the blank hinge or screen-hinge which oj^ens both ways ; the stop- 
hinge, which opens only 90° ; and the "hook-and-eye'' or "gate" 
hinge. 




Fig-. 233. a. Butt-hinge, b. Tee-hing-e. c Chest-liiiige. d. Table-hinge, e. Blank 

or Screen-hinge. 

The knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the 
two leaves. Fig. 234. The "acorn" is the head of the "pintle"' or 
pin that passes thru the knuckle. Sizes of butts are indicated in 
inches for length, and as "narrow;" "middle," "broad" and "desk" 
for width. The pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in 
box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. Sometimes, as in blind- 



132 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 



hinges, the pintle is fastened into one knuekle, but turns freely in 

the other. 

A butt-hinge may be set in one of three iwsitions, Fig. 235: (1) 

Where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a 

door. Here the knuekle is set well out from the wood. (2) Where 

it is desired to have the hinged portion 
open flat and no more. Here the cen- 
ter of the |)in is in line with the out- 
side surface of the wood. This is less 
likely to rack the hinge than the other 
two positions. (3) Where it is desired 
to have the knuckle project as little as 
possible. 

HINGING 





/ 


1 


}d 


/ 






® 




® 










fc-3 








@ 


-^ 


d 


© 










'b 




— 1 



Fig. 234. Partsof a butthinge. 

1.1. Leaves. 2.2.2. Knuckle. 

3. Pintle. 4. Acorn 



In setting the hinges of a l)Ox cover, 
first see that the cover fits the box ex- 
actly all the way around. 

Hi the case of a door, see that it fits 
its frame, evenly all the way around. 
To insure a tighter fit at the swino-ing edge 



but with a little })lay 

this edge should be slightly beveled inwards. 

In attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge 
into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. The gains may 
be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together. 

With these matters determined pi'oceed as follows : In the case 
of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends 
of the box as the hinge is long. 

In the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively 
above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. Mark with 
the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square 
across a]ipr(iximat('ly the width of the gain to receive it. T)o this for 
both hinges. IJetwccn these lines gage the proper width of the gains. 
Set another gage to one-half the thickness of the knuckle and gage 
on the door face the depth of the gains. Chisel out the gains, set 
the hinges in place. Iiore the lioU's. and drive the screws. Place the 
door in position again to test the lit. If all is well, mark the ])Osition 
of the hinges on the fiaine, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the 
hinu'es. Where the hinu'c is o-ained its full thickness into the door. 



WOOD FASTENINGS. 



133 





no gain, of course^ is cut in the frame. If the hinges are set too 
shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a 
little dee]3er. If they are set too deep the screws may be loosened 
and a piece of paper or a shav- 
ing inserted underneath along 
the outer arris of the gain. 

LOCKS 

The chief parts of a lock 
are: the IjoJi. its essential fea- 
ture, the selvage, the plate 
which appears at the edge of 
the door or drawer, the hox, 
which contains the mechanism- 
including the tumbler, tvard. 
spring, etc., the key-pin, into 
or around Avhich the key is in- 
serted, the strike, the plate at- 
tached opposite the selvage, 
(often left out as in drawer- 
locks, but essential in hoolv-bolt 
locks, and self-locking locks,) 
and the escutcheon, the plate 
around the keyhole. 

Locks may be classified: (1) According to their uses, of which 
there are two types, (a), Fig. 236, For drawers, cupboards, tills, 
wardrobes, and doors. In these the bolt simply projects at right 
angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of 
the lock, (b). Fig. 237, For desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and 

sliding doors. In these, the bolt in- 
cludes a hook device of some kind to 
resist pressure perpendicular to the 
selvage. In some locks, the hook or 
hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in 
others the bolt engages in hooks or 
eyes attached to the strike. 
TT V, oi^ Tj- I 1 ^^ T^ (3) According to the method of ap- 

Fig. 236. Rim-lock. for Drawer. ^ ' o i r 

1. Bolt. 2. seivagre. 3. Bo.x. plicatiou. as rim locks, which are fas- 

4. Key-pin. ^ ' 



Pig. 235. Three Positions of Hing-es. 




134 



HAXDWORK IN WOOD. 



lened on the surface, and iiiurtise locks which are mortised into the 
edge of a door or drawer or ])ox. 



INSERTIXG LOCKS 

-To insert a riiu-Iocl'. measure the distance from the selvage to the 
kev-pin. locate this as the center of the keyhole, and l)ore the hole. If 

the lofk has a selvage, gain ont the edge 
of tlic door oi' drawer to I'eceive it. If 
the lock hox has to he gained in, do 
tliat next, taking care that the bolt has 
room to slide. Cut the keyhole to the 
|)ro|)ei' shape with a keyhole-saw or 
small ehisel. Fasten the lock in place, 
and if there is a strike or face-plate, 
mark its place and mortise it in. 

'i'o insert a inortisc-lock, locate and 
bore tlie keyhole, mortise in the box 
and the selvage, iinish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the es- 
cutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place. 




Morlise-lock, for Box. 



WOOD FASTENINGS. 135 



WOOD FASTENINGS 
References : 

Hammaeher & Schleniiiier. 
Catalog No. 151. 

Nails. 
Goss, p. 153. Griffith, pp. 75-78. 

Purfield. Wood Craft, 5: 181. Wood Craft, 5: 103. 

Park, pp. 129-135. Wheeler, pp 428-433. 

Tacks. 

Wheeler, pp. 429-433. Goss, p. 155. 

Sickels, p. 70. Barter, pp. 84-86. 

Screws. 

Goss, p. 155. Griffith, pp. 78-80. 

Wheeler, p. 476. Park, pp. 136-140. 

Barter, p. 86. 

Dowels. 
Goss, p. 153. Sickels. p. 104. 

Wheeler, p. 374. Griffith, p. 02. 

Wedges. 

Goss, p. 151. 

Glue. 

Goss, p. 156. Sickels. p. 106. 

Rivington, III, p. 432. Wheeler, pp. 391-396. 

Barter, p. 82. Alexander, Wood Craft, 5: 168. 

Standage, Wood Craft, 7: 48. Griffith, pp. 80-83. 

Park, jjp. 141-146. 

Hinges. 

Sickels, p. 118. Wheeler, p. 402. 

For general bibliography see p. 4. 



Chapter VI. 
EQUIPMENT AND CAEE OF THE SHOP. 

Tool equipment. The choice of tools in any particuhir shop best 
comes out of long experience. Some teachers prefer to emphasize 
certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. The 
following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty- 
four students. One bench and its tools may be added for the teacher. 

The prices given are quoted from Discount Sheet No. 1 for Cata- 
logue of Tools, No. 355 issued by Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., 
Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City, dated 1908, and 
are correct at the present date (1910). Aggregate orders, however, 
are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that be- 
fore ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for whicli 
special figures will be quoted. 

There are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the 
market, but those specified below are typical good ones. 

Following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, 
one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other 
more elaborate to cost approximately $750. 

$400 TOOL EQUIPMENT. 
INDIVIDUAL TOOLS. 

24 Manual Training,' School Benches H. & 8. -L," fa $8.50 $204.00 

24 Stanley Jack-rianes. No. 5. 14", @ $1.74 each 41.76 

24 Disston's Back-Saws. No. 4, 10", @ 9.3e each 22.32 

12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, %", handled and sharpened. 2.21 

12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, 1/2", handled and sharpened. 2.68 

24 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2. 1". handled and sharpened.. 7.31 

24 Sloyd Knives, No. 7, 21/2" 6.50 

12 Hammond's Adze-eye Claw-Hanuner. No. 3, 7 oz 4.90 

24 Try-squares, No. 5%, <>" 5.32 

24 Beech Marking-Gages. No. 04^2 4.86 

136 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 137 

24 Boxwood Rules, No. 3, 12" long $ 1.80 

12 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752 1.50 

12 Bench-Hooks 2.00 

12 Bench-Dusters, No. 10 2.70 

Total for individual tools $309.86 

GENERAL TOOLS 

6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7, 22", 10 points $ 6.75 

6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points 6.75 

2 Turning-Saws in frames, 14", M. F. & Co 1.74 

1 Dozen Turning-Saw Blades, 14", H. S. & Co 1.06 

1 Hack-Saw Frame, ISIo. 50 45 

1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6", iron back .48 

1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240 8.20 

2 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 651/2 1.56 

1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6 2.22 

1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78 1.10 

1 Stanley "Bed Rock" Plane, No. 603 1.58 

6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54 1.42 

1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80 .70 

6 Each Molding-Scrapers, No. 2 and No. 7 .90 

1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's, .10 

3 Flat Bastard Files, K. & F., 8", handled 45 

3 Half-Round Files, K. & F., 8", handled 55 

3 Rat-tail Files, K. & F., 8", handled 33 

4 Files, K. & F., 6", slim taper .36 

1 Auger-Bit-File 13 

1 File-Card, No. 1 .14 

1 Empire Tool-CTrinder 2.80 

1 Grindstone, No. 11, with stone 15.00 

1 India Oilstone, No. 0, in box .95 

1 Soft Arkansas Oil Slipstone, No. 6 18 

1 Copperized Steel Oiler, No. 14A, % pint 23 

• 2 Disston's Sliding T Bevel, No. 3, 6" 46 

1 Stanley Miter-Square, No. 16, 10" 60 

1 Sargent Steel Square, No. 2 69 

1 Pair Starrett's Winged Dividers, No. 92, 8" 75 

1 Chisel, No. 2, %", handled 20 

3 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Gouges, No. 8, 1" 1.29 

1 Buck Brothers' Gouge, No. 10, inside bevel, regular sweep, %". . . .43 

4 Barber's Braces, No. 14, 6" sweep 3.52 

1 Barber's Ratchet-Brace, No. 31, 12" sweep 1.62 

5 Gimlet-Bits, 1 each of 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32" 40 

1 Set Auger-Bits, R. Jennings" 4.46 

1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, small .57 



138 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

2 Screwdriver-Bits, V/', round blade. No. 10. 4" $0.32 

3 Rose Countersinks, No. 10. ^" .68 

6 Brad- Awls, assorted l"-liL'" 30 

1 Hand-Drill, No. 51/2 2.45 

Extra Drills, 2 each of No. 107. size. 10, 1.-), 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 

50, 55, (iO 1.42 

C New Century Screwdrivers, 4" .96 

1 New Century Screwdriver, 12" .54 

6 0. K. Nailsets, assorted .42 

6 Carpenter's Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft 9.60 

12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 16, 10" 4.79 

12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 171/2, 6" 3.42 

4 Carriage-Maker's Clamps, 6" 1.32 

1 Automatic Miter-Clamp 1-80 

1 Pair Pliers, No. 200, 5" 21 

1 Coe's Monkey- Wrench, 10" 60 

1 Glue-Pot, No. 3 82 

1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 276 8.07 

1 Gas Stove, 99A 55 

1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154, 5" .88 

1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10 27 

3 Flat Varnish Brushes. No. 54, \V2". hard-rul)l)or-l)nund ( fin- 
shellac) 96 

6 Cheap Brushes. 1", tin-l)ound (for stains). "EE" ,90 

6 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters ( No. 5 1 1.80 

6 Enamel Cups, i{. pint -60 

1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41 17 



Total for general tools $114.97 

Total for individual tools 309.86 



$424.83 
Discount for schools, 10 per cent 42.48 



$382.35 
Lockers for individual work $150.00 

$750 TOOL EQUIPMENT 

TXCLUDIXG 1 BENCH AND SET OF TOOLS FOR INSTRUCTOR 
AND INDIVIDUAL TOOLS 

25 Manual Training School Benches. Hamniacher, Schlemnier & Co.'s 

'M" with Toles' (luick-aitiiig Vise im side, (a $20 $.i()0.00 

25 Stanley Jack-Planes, No. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each 43.50 

25 Disston's Back-Saws, No. 4, 10", (a 93c each 23.25 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 139 

25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, %,", liaiulled and sharpened, @ 

$•2.21 doz $ 4.61 

25 Buciv Brothers" Firnier-t'hisels, i/^". handled and sharpened. @ 

$2.68 doz 5.58 

25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1". handled and sharpened, @ $.3.65. 7.61 

30 Sloyd Knives. No. 7, 21/2" blade (6 extra) @ $3.25 doz 8.12 

25 Hammond's Adze-eye Hammers, No. 3, 7 oz., @ $4.90 doz 10.21 

25 Round Hickory Mallets. No. 4, @ $1.40 doz 2.91 

25 Hardened Blade Try-Squares, No. 51/2, 6", @ $2.66 doz 5.57 

25 Beech Marking-Gages, No. 64i/o, 8", @ $2.43 doz 5.07 

25 Steel Bench-Rules, No. 300D, @ $4.80 doz 10.00 

36 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752 (12 extra) 4.50 

25 Maple Bench-Hooks, @ $2.00 doz 4.18 

25 Bench-Dusters. No. 10, @ $2.70 doz 5.63 

Total for individual tools $640.74 

GENERAL TOOLS 

6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7. 22", 10 points $ 6.75 

6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points 6.75 

4 Turning-Saws in frames, 14" 3.48 

1 Doz. Turning-Saw Blades, 14" 1.06 

1 Compass-Saw, Disston's No. 2, 10" .27 

1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240 8.20 

1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6". iron back .48 

2 Coping-Saws, No. 110 40 

1 Gross Coping-Saw Blades, 0" 1.00 

6 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 65% 4.68 

1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6 2.22 

1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78 1.10 

2 Stanley's "Bed Rock" Smooth-Planes, No. 603 or 3.16 , 

Sargent's i\djustable-Frog Smooth-Plane 

12 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters (No. 5) , 2" 3.60 

1 Stanley Beading Rabbet and Matching Plane, No. 45 5.85 

1 Stanley Router-Plane, No. 71 ' 1.37 

6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54 1.42 

6 Pattern-Makers' Spokeshaves, applewood, small. li/4" 1.52 

2 Drawing-Knives, ^^'hite's No. 31, 6" 1.60 

1 Stanley Adjustable Scraper-Plane, No. 112, with toothing cutter.. 1.43 

1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80 .70 

3 Each Molding-Scrapers. No. 2, No. 7 .45 

2 Dowel-Pointers, No. 1 00 

1 Dowel-Plate 30 

1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's •!*' 

1 Iron Screw-Box, French, ^" 1.80 



1-40 HANDWOliK IX WOOD. 

4 Flat Bastard Files. K. & F., 8", liaiidlcd $0.60 

4 Half-Round Files. K. & F., 8". liaiidled 72 

4 Rat-tail Files. K. & F., 8", handled 44 

4 Files, G", slim tajier 36 

2 Auger-Bit- Files 25 

1 File-Card. No. 1 14 

1 Empire Tool-CTrinder 2.80 

1 ({rindstdiie, No. 11. (iron frame and stone) 15.00 

2 India ()i'stones. No. 2!) (mediTim), in iron l;ox 1.34 

1 Soft Arkansas ( )il Slipstone, No. 6 18 

2 Copperized Steel Oilei's, 14A, Vi; pint .46 

6 Disston's Sliding T Bevels. No. 3, (i" 1.38 

1 Stanley Miter-Sqnare, No. 10. 10" 60 

1 Sargent Steel Sqnare. No. 2 60 

2 Pairs Dividers, Starrett's winged, No. !)2. 8" 1.50 

3 Serateh-Awls. Collier's, 4" 33 

1 Pair 'rraiiiiiiel-l'oints, No. 1 .74 

1 Try-S.piare, \<i. :^V2. 12". hardened hlade 52 

1 Mortise-Gage, No. 77 .55 

1 Cutting-Gage. No. 70 17 

3 Eaeh Firmer-Chisels. P>uek Bros." No. 2, handled and sharpened: 

1/1(1". 1/8". 3/16". 3/8". 3/4". 1 1 /2" 4.42 

3 Eaeh outside-Bevel Gouges. Bu( k P>ros." I'^irmer, No. 8 handled 

and sliar])ened: V^" , ^ -j" . %" . 1" 3.55 

3 Addis' Carving-Tools, round maple handles. No. 11, 5/32" 06 

3 Addis" Veiniug-Tools, round maple handles. No. II. 1/16" 06 

3 Inside-Bevel Gouges, regular sweep. No. 10. %" 1.29 

6 Barber's Nickel-Plated Bi-aces. No. 14, 6" sweep 5.25 

1 Barber's Katehet-P.raee, No. 31. 12" sweep 1.62 

3 Eaeh (Jerman (Jindet-Bits, 2 32". 3 32". 4/32", 5/32". 6/32" 1.00 

3 Eaeh Pu^sell deiuiings" Auger-Bits, 3/16", 4/16", 5/16". 6/16". 

7 K;", 8 Ki" .' 4.18 

2 Eaeh Kussell .Teiniings" Auger-Bits, genuine, 10/16". 11/16", 

12/16", 13/16". 14/16". 15/16", 16/16" 6.19 

1 Eaeh Foerstner's Auger-Bits, %", ,><^", Vz" 1.79 

1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, Vo" to IVs" 57 

3 Buck Bros.' Rose Countersinks. No. 10, 5,^" 78 

1 Washer-Cutter. No. 350 65 

1 Plug-Cutter, y^" 32 

2 Screwdriver-Bits. Vo". round blade, 4" long 32 

4 Each Brad-Awls, liamlled, 1", \%". \^-j" 60 

6 New Century Screwdrivers, 4" .96 

1 New Century Sci-ewdrixcr. 12" .54 

1 Xew Century Screwthixcr, 8" .36 

1 New Century Screwdrixcr, '^Vo". s'im .16 

1 Dowel-Plate, ca-t vleel 30 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 141 

G U. K. Nailsets, assoiU'd 1, IG", 3/32", 1/8" 42 

6 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft 9. GO 

2 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 5 ft 3. GO 

12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. IG, 10" 4.79 

12 Aldrieh's Oiled Handscrews, No. 17 V-;, G" 3.42 

4 Carriage -Makers" Clamps, (i" 1.32 

1 Automatic Miter-Clamp 1-80 

2 Doz. Acme Pinch-Dogs, %" 30 

1 Glue-Pot, No. 3 82 

1 Gas Stove, No. 99A , 55 

1 Coe's Monkey-wrench, 10" CO 

1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10 27 

G F'at Varni h I'luslus Xo. .")4, IVo". havd-iul>lici-li()\nid (for 

shellac) 1-58 

12 Cheap Brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), EE, 1" 1.80 

G Enameled Cups, 14 pint .60 

1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41 -17 

1 Pair Blackboard Compasses or Dividers 1.50 

1 Blackboard Triangle, 4.5° 50 

1 Blackboard Triangle, 30°xG0° 50 



Total for general tools $189.83 

METAL WOHKING T00L8 

1 Bench, No. L, without vises •$ 8.00 

1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 27() 8.07 

1 Hand- Vise, No. 1230%, 4" 54 

1 Hay-Budden Anvil, 10 lbs 3.07 

1 Riveting-Hammer, Atha, 4 oz .32 

1 Rivet-Set, No. 4 27 

1 Cold-Chisel, 3/g" cutting edge 11 

1 Cold-Chisel, 5/^" cutting edge .15 

1 Cape-Chisel, ^" cutting edge .13 

1 Round-nosed Chisel, %" 13 

1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154. 5" 88 

1 Pair Compton's Metal Snips, No. 12, 2" .G3 

2 Pair Flat-nose Pliers, No. 180()yo, rV 58 

1 Die-Holder, No. 11 32 

1 Die, 5^"xi4", 6/32" 27 

1 Hand-Drill, No. 51/2 2.45 

Extra Drills, Morse's No. 107, 2 each, Nos, 10, l.i. 20, 2.5, 30, 35. 

40, 4.5, .50, 55, GO 1.42 

1 ]\Ietal Countersink, No. 15, 5y^" _, .18 

1 Hack-Saw Frame, No. 50 43 

6 Hack-Saw Blades, 8", H. S. & Co 25 

1 Melting Ladle. 3" 19 

1 Soldering Copper, 1 lb .31 



142 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



1 Mill Bastard Fik-. S", 1 safe edgi-, handled.. 

1 Mill Smooth File, G", handled 

1 Square Ba.stard File, 8". handled 

1 Half-round Bastard File, 8", handled 

1 Slim Taper Saw-File, G", handled 

1 Hound Bastard File. 4", handled 

1 Atha Mat'hinisfs llaiiiincr, Ball-peen. (1 oz. 



.8.3 
.38 



Total for metal working tools $29.95 

Glue and Stain Bench $ 15.00 

Lockers for individual work for 3()() pupils 360.00 

Nail and Screw Cabinet 35.00 



$410.00 

Individual Tools $040.74 

General Tools 189.83 



$830.57 
Discount for scliools. 10 per cent 83.06 



$747.51 
Cabinets, lockers, etc 410.00 



$1,157.51 



Till-: CAi;!-: of tiiJ' woodwoi.-kixc; shop 



77/ r gciicfdl ai-rtnii/cii/rnt nf I he raoni. Tin- iiii])()i'tant factors 
are tlie sourcv or soui'fcs of liiilit, and the linrs of travel. The eom- 
inoii arraugenient of heiiehes wliere two sides of the room are lighted, 
is sliown in n. Fig. •v^'5y. By this arrangement, as eaeh worker faces 
liis hench, Jie also faces one set of windows and lias anotlier set of 
windows at his left. The advantage of tins arrangement is that it is 
easy to test one's work with the try-s(|nai'e hy lifting it up to the 
light. Another arrangement, shown in ]>. Fig. "^oS. lias this advan- 
tage, that there are no shadows on the woi'k wlien it is lying on the 
hench and tlie woi'kei' is holding liis ruU' or try-square on it with 
Iris left hand. When all the windows are on one side of the room 
the latter is the more advantageous ari'angeinent. 

In detei'iniidng the ])Osition of the heiiches, especially with refer- 
ence to their distance I'l-oni each other, thought should he given to 
the general lines of traxc!. ti-oui the indixidual henches to the general 
tool-rack. 1o the linishing-tahle. to the lockers, etc. Even if all llie 
aisles cannot he w idi- enough hoth loi' passage and for woi'k, one 
wider one thru the center of the room mav solve the difficulty. Where 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 



143 



rooms are c-rowded, space may be economized b}' placing tlie benches 
in pairs, back to back, c and d. Fig. 338. In any case, room should 
always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teach- 
er's bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and 
to think. 

The Tools. Every shop soon has its own traditions as to the ar- 
rangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observ- 



t==l 


u 


T~l 


'" 


\l 


0—1 


1 


■[; 


1—] J 




1 


(j— 1 1 




BBS 



C=l C3 C=l I 
en en C=i ll 
~i Pl C=l 

I 



m m 
m m 

n rn 



Fig. 238. Four Different Arrang-ements of Benches in a Shop. 



ing. (1) It is an okl saying that there should l)e "a i)lace for every- 
thing and everything in its place." This is eminently true of a well- 
ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as im- 
portant. (2) Things of the same sort should be arranged together, and 
arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. 
In arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. 
In the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of 
cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down an- 



144 



]lAND\V()j;lv IN WOOD. 



other. Where the lack must iieuds Ix' lii.uh, all the tools ean be 
brought within reacli. by phuing hmg tools, like files, screwdrivers, 
etc., at the top. Siicli an arrangement is shown in Fig. 239. 

As to the imlividiial benches, those withoiTt liigh backs are to be 
piefcrreH. not onlv because of theii' convenience when it is desired 




Fiff. 230. General Tool rack in a School Shop. 



to woi'k on large inect's, like tal)le tops, and because tlie backs do not 
interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to 
look ovei' the room to set' that everything is in order. If the e(|uip- 
mi'iit is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the 
benches and tlie genei-al rack to see that evei-ything is in ])lace. 

In general, there are two mctliods of keeping guard over tools, the 
open and the closed. ]n the open method, everything is kept in sight 
so that em])tv ]ilaces can be discovered readily. This method is a 
convenient one. and, besides, tlie tools are always easily accessible. 
In the closed method, the tools are kv\)\ in drawers and cases where 
thev can l)e locked up. '^I'his method is suitable where pu])ils are 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 



145 



equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. In such a ease, the 
common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and in- 
dividual pupils' tools in separate drawers. This method has the dis- 
advantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their 
loss may not be discovered immediatelv. ()n the other hand, where 





K'» 








4j«A «aiiii^^H 






" * 

u- 


^ 


^ 4 


4 


K 't ^ ^^H 


^ 


WP 






L. _ . 


jiiHil 






-^ 


M 










L 


1£ 






Bi^iki^^B 


^ 




S4 

It-- -rtif 

IP 








1 






M-.J^3^Z 




m 


E±r= ^ . i 










'^'^^ 




Ti 



Fig-. 240. Nail and Screw Cabinet. 



the drawers and cases aie kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is 
reduced almost to a minimum. Sometimes a combination of both 
methods is tried, the tools being kept m unlocked drawers. This 
method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disap- 
pearing. 

Even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious diffi- 
culties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. Pu- 
pils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not 
where they belong. Labels at the 2:)laces of the different sets may 



146 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



help somewhat ; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the 
form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. Pu- 
pils will see that, when they will not stop to read a lal)el. 

In spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. A plan to 
cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require 




Fig-. 241. All Inexpensive Locker for Unfinished Work. 



a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. Then at 
the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is 
returned pro I'ata. 

There is diversity of practice in the distrihution of tools on the 
general case and on the individual benches. Some tools, like the 



EQUirMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 



147 



plane and chisel, and try-sqnare, are so frequently in use that each 
worker must have one at hand. As to others, the demand must de- 
termine the supply. One other consideration may be expressed by 
the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, 
should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be 
discouraged, should be kept remote. Some tools, like files, it may be 
well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for. 



^r-V \\^6M\^6^]^6'^ 



Si' 
4 



Si." 

4 






CD 



-i 



5'6 



-/& 



Fiy. 242. A More Expensive Locker for Unfinished Work. 



A cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in Fig. 240, for holding 
nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a ma- 
terial aid in preserving the order of the shop. 

As for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared 
with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. 
The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To c^ean 
them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method 
of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing 
wbeel on wliich has been rubbed some tiipoli. They may then be 
polished on a clean buffer without tripoli. 

The Locl-ers. In order to maintain good order in the shop, an 
ahuost in(lis])ensab]e ]»art of the equipment is a set of lockers for hold- 



148 



HAXDWOUK rS' WOOD. 



ing the unfinished work of pupils. An inex})ensive outfit may consist 
simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and 1 <S" long. Fig. 241. 
Ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of 
shelves to conceal and protect the contents. Such a case should cost 
at the rate of about 40c for each compartment. A more substantial 
and more con\enient case, shown in Fig. 242, consists of compart- 




1'\'j:. 243 (lining and Staiiiiny Bench Covered with 7,\nc 



ments each 9^" high. 0" wide, and 18" decj). These proportions 
may be changed to suit varying conditions. In front of each tier 
of 12 coiHpartuu'iits is a flap door ()|)('ning downward. Such a case 
built of yellow ]>iii(' (])anclcd) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per 
compartment. 

There should, of course, be a separate coiupai'tiiient foi' each ]Mipi! 
using the sho|). Where possible, there should niso he a special table 



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 



149 



Fitr. 244. Sliellac Utensils. 



for staining and gluing. Where strict econuni\- must be practiced, a 
good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. 
A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that 
shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc. 

Where no staining- table is possible, temporary coverings of oil- 
cloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for 
the purpose. 

Care of hrmlics and materials used in finishing wood. Shellac 
should be kept in glass or pot- 
tery or aluminum receptacles 
but not in any metal like tin, 
which darkens it. A good 
plan is to have a bottle foi' 
fresh, untouched shellac, a 
wide-mouthed jar for that 
which has been diluted and 
used, and an enameled cup for 
use. There should also be a 
special brush, Fig. 244. At 
the time of using, first see 

that the brush is soft and jiliable. If it is stiff, it can be soaked 
quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. Tliis alcohol may 
then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. Then pour out 
a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with 
some fresh shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar, 
carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not 
to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may 
also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. What 
little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the 
brush may be left standing in the cu]) until required. The import- 
ant things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only, 
(indeed, it is a good plan to label them "SHELLAC ONLY,") and 
to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evapo- 
rate. In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to lie fre- 
quently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the 
brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar. 

Varnish brushes need to he cleaned thoroly after each using. If 
they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great dif- 
ficultv. 



150 



llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 



Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing 
water and then haying them flat in a box. Cups in which the 
stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water. 

Brushes for oil stains are 
most easily kept in good con- 
dition, by being hung in a 
l)nisb-keeper. Fig. 545, (sold 
l)y Devoe & Reynolds, 101 
Fulton St., X. Y. C) partly 
filled witli turpentine. The 
same brushes may also be used 
for filkTS. 

Oil stains should 1)6 poured 
back into their respective bot- 
tles, and the cups wiped out 
witb cotton waste. When they 
get in bad condition, they can 
bi' tlean('(l readily after a pre- 
liminary soaking in a strong- 
solution of potash. The same 
treatnu'nt may be given to 
brushes, but if they are left 
soaking too long in the solu- 
tion, file lu'istles will be eaten 
off. 



; witb 
water 




Fig. 245. Brusli-keeper. 



EQL'IPMEXT AND CARE OP THE SHOP 



References : * 



Murray. Year Rook 1900. p. 69. 
Bailey, ,1/. T. Ma<i. 9:138. Dec. "07, 
Rouillioii. pp. 48-90. 
Haminaciier aiul Sclilcnuner, passim 



•^For general bihlioyrapliy. see p. 4. 



Chapter VII. 

THE COMMON JOINTS. 

Wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together, we 
have what is properly called joinery. In common usage the term in- 
dicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships^ 
but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of con- 
structing furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage- 
maker, and cooper. Since joinery involves the constant use of joints^ 
a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and di- 
rections for making tyi)ical ones may be of convenience to workers 
in M'ood. 

HEADING JOINTS 

No. 1. A lapped and strapped joint. Fig. '2iSA, p. 1T7, is made by 
laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both 
together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which 
they may be tightened. It is a very strong joint and is used where 
the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and 
flag poles. 

No. 2. A fished joint. Fig. 26-i, is made by butting the squared 
ends of tw^o timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron, 
called fish-plates, over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking 
the whole firmly together. It is used for joining timbers in the di- 
rection of their length, as in boat construction. 

No. 3. In a fished joint. Fig. 264, keys are often inserted between 
the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen 
the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to 
tension. In wide pieces and for extra strength, as in bridge work, the 
bolts may be staggered. 

Nos. -4. 5, 6 and 7. A scarf or spliced joint. Fig. 264, is made by 
joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such 
a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in Xo. 4; tension, 
as in No. 5 ; both, as in No. 6, where the scarf is tabled ; or cross 

151 



152 



IIANUWOKK IX WOOL). 



strain as in No. 7. No. 4 is used in house sills and in splicing out 
short posts, Nos. 5 and G in open frame work. No. 7 with or without 
the fish-plate, is used in hoais and canoes, and is sometimes called a 
boat-huilder's joint, to distinguish it from No. 4, a carpenter's joint. 
A joint to resist cross strain is stronger wlien scarfed in the direction 
of the strain than across it. No. 7 is the plan, not elevation, of a 
joint to receive vertical cross strain. 



BUTT JOIXTS 

No. S. A doweled hiitt-joiitt. Fig. 2G4, is made hy inserting, with 
glue, dowel-pins into holes bored into the two iiu'iid)ers. The end of 

one luendx'r is butted against 
the face or edge of the other. 
It is used in cabinet-making 
wlit'ic the presence of nails 
Willi I (I l)e unseemly. 

Ill a doweled butt-joint the 
(liiwcis may go clear thru the 
outside member, and be fin- 
ished as Inittons on the out- 
side, wliere they show. To lay 
out tliis joint mark near the 
ends of tlie edges of the abut- 
ting mendjer, N, Fig. 246, cen- 
ter-lines A B. Draw on the 
otlier member Y, a sharp pen- 
cil-line, to which when the 
lines AB on N ai'e fitted, N will be in its proper place. Carry this 
line around to the other side of Y and locate on it the proper centers 
for the dowel-holes, E and F. Then fasten on the end of X a hand- 
screw in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end. With 
another handscrew, clamp this handscrew to Y', in such a way that 
tlie marks on the two pieces match, A to C and B to D, Fig. 247. 
Bore at tlie proper places, E and F, holes directly thru Y into X. 

Fig. 248 illuvstrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in 
which tlie joints are made in tliis way. The cross-lap joints of the 
stretebei-s ai'e fii'st glued together, tlien tlio other joints are assem- 
bled withoui glue, to see that all the parts lit and tinally two opposite 





r 
Y 


> 

> 


c 



i.ay-dul for Thru Doweling-. 



Till-: coM:\rox joints. 



153 




Fig-. 247. Thru Boring- for a Butt Joint. 



fflp 




IP 


■mmmmmm. 


t 
1 

d 


^' 


< 



FifiT. 248. Gluing Up a Four-leg-ged Stand. 



154 



IIAXDWORK IX WOOD. 



sides are glued at a time, i'ieees ol' [)n|)rr are laid inside the gluing 
blocks to prevent them from sticking to the 'egs. 

In case tlie ddwels are to be hidden the chief diflficnlty is to lo- 
cate the holes jiroperly. One method of procedure is as follows: To 

dowel the end of one member 
against thi' faee of the other as 
a stiinger into a rail or a rail 
into a table leg, first lay out 
the position of the dowels in 
the end of the first member, 
X. Fig. ^?41). Gage a center-line, 
A B, across this end length- 
wise, locate the centers of the 
dowel-holes, and s(piaie across 
with a knife point, as CD and 
KV. <!age a line on the other 
member to correspond with the 
line AI>. On the face so 
gaged, lay the first member on 
its side so that one arris lies 
)tt' the [loints 1) and F, to get the 

















0=; 


A 




^/^ 


^ 




"/ 
1 


I 






P 

f /^ 


1 




^^ 














R 





Fig'. 249. Layiiijr out a Dowel Joint. 



along this gaged 'iiu' and pi ie 
centers of the dowel-holes. 

If. as is usual, theif are a nuiidier ot similar joints to be made, 
a device like that •^howii in Fig. "i 4!i will expedite matters. 1 and 
:<! are [joints of hiai's diixcii thru a piece of soft wood, which has been 
notched out. and aie as tar apait as the dowels. A-1 is the distance 
from the woi'kiiig '.'^Vjlv of the rail to the first dowel. The same 
measuie can he \\>vi\ tiom the end of the leg. 

\Adien the ceiileis ai'e all niarl-;ed. hoie the holes. Insert the 
dowe's into the hole- aiul uud<e a trial asstMubly. If any rail is 
twisted from its |iio|»er plane, note caitd'ully wheie the error is. take 
a])art. glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it oif ilush with 
the surface, and le-hme in such a ])lace that the parts, when assem- 
bled, will come up ti'ue. When e\-erything lits. glue and c'amp together. 

Sii. '.I. .1 hiC'/ntiii'd jdiiil. Fiu'. •.'(■> I. is made by driving nails 
diagonalh thru the corneis of one uu'udfM' into the other. It is used 
in faslening the studding 1o the sill in balloon fi'aming. 

A'o. !(). A i/nnr-hiill juiiil. Fig. •.'(•.!, is made hy inserting an iron 
bolt tbi'U a. hole in one meniher and into the other to meet a nut 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 155 

inserted from the side of the second member. It is very strong and 
is used in bencli construction, wooden machinery, etc. 

No. 11. A plain butt-joint, Fig. 264, is one in which the mem- 
bers join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. It is used on 
returns as in ordinary boxes and cases. 

A^o. 12. A glued and hloclrd joint. Fig. 264, is made by gaiing 
and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which arc 
butted and glued together. It is used in stair-work and cabinei:- 
work, as in the corners of bureaus. 

No. 13. A hopper-joint.^ Fig. 264, is a butt-joint, but is peculiar 
in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on 
account of the pitch of the sides. It is used in hoppers, bins, chutes, 
etc. The difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper 
angle for the edges of the pieces. This may be done as follows : 
After the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper 
and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by 
the pitch of the sides. Lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper 
on the outside of the end pieces. From the ends of these lines, on 
the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with 
the knife and try-square. Connect these lines on what will be the 
inside of the hopper. Saw off the surplus wood and plane to the 
lines thus scored. The side pieces may be finished in the same way, 
and the parts are then ready to be assembled. 

HALVING- JOINTS 

A halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member 
is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the 
notch in the other, so that the up23er and under surfaces of the mem- 
bers are flush. 

No. IJ/.- A cross-lap joint, Fig. 264, is a halved joint in which 
both members project both ways from the joint. This is a very com- 
mon joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers 
cross each other in the same plane. 

The two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, 
either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see 
Chap. IX. p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across tbe other in 
the position which they are to occupv when finished and mark plainly 
their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. 
Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y. on one 



156 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

arris, and from tliis jxtiiit lay off on this arris half tlie width of the 
upper piece, X. From this point square across Y with the Ixuife 
and try-square. Lay X again in its pk^ce, exactly along the line 
just scored. Then nurrk with the knife on Y the width of X, which 
may then be removed and the second line squared across Y. From 
these two lines square across both edges of Y" to approximately one- 
half the thickness. Xow turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark 
it in the same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of 
the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to 
hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if 
one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be 
gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit. 

Cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife- 
marks, Fig. 91, p. GG, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel 
out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and Tl, p. oO. 

The bottom of the dado thus cut should be fiat so as to afi'ord 
surface for gluing. When well made, a cross-la}) joint does not need 
to be pounded together but will lit tight under pressure of the hands. 

Xo. 15. A middle-lap joint or hid red tee, Fig. 2Go, is made in 
the same way as a cross-lap joint, l)ut one member projects from the 
joint in only one direction. It is used to join stretchers to rails as 
in lloor timbers. 

Xo. Hi. All cml-tiiii joint. Fig. ■Jii.'). is nu\de in the same way as a 
cross-lap joint exce])t that the joint is at the end of both mend^ers. It 
is used at the cornei's of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats. 

To make an end-lap joint, i)lace the members in their relative 
positions, faces up, and mark jilainly. Mark carefully on each mem- 
ber the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly ( 1/1 (>" ) 
to overlap the other. Square across at these points with a sharp 
knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the 
upper side of the lower member. Xow proceed as in the cross-lap 
joint, except that tlie gaged line runs around the end and the cut- 
ting must be done exactly to this line. 

Xo. 17. In an enddiip joint on mt)leted piecei^. Fig. 265, the 
joint must be adapted to the I'abbet. The rabbet should therefore 
l)e plowed before the joint is made. Tbe rablx't at the end of tlie 
])iece X is cut not the entii'e width oC the piece Y, but only the width 
of the lap, — c-f=a-e. This joint is used occasionally in picture- 
frames. 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 157 

No. IS. A dovetail hah-ing or lap-do retail, Fig. 265, is a mid- 
dle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better 
able to resist tension. It is used for strong tee joints. 

No. 19. A herded hairing. Fig. 265, is made like a middle-lap 
joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so 
that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. It is very strong when loaded 
above. It was formerly used in house framing. 

MODIFIED HALVING JOINTS 

No. 20. A nolelieil joint. Fig. 265, is made by cutting out a 
portion of one timber. It is used where it is desired to reduce the 
height occupied by tlie upper timber. Joists are notched on to 
wall plates. 

No. 21. A eliccl-ed joint or double notcli, Fig. 265, is made by 
cutting out notcbcs from both the timbers so as to engage each 
other. It is used where a single notch would weaken one member 
too much. 

No. 22. A cogged or corl-ed or caulked joint. Fig. 265, is made 
by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower })iece, leaving a 
'"cog" uncut. From the u[)i>er piece a notch is cut only wide enough 
to receive the cog. A cogged joint is stronger than a notched because 
tlie upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. It is used 
in heavy framing. 

No. 2S. A forked tenon joint. Fig. 265, is made by cutting a 
folk in the end of one member, and notching the other meml)er to 
lit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. It is used in knock- 
down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, Avliere it is 
desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be 
continuous. 

No. 21/. A r<d)het or rebate or ledge joint. Fig. 266, is made by 
cutting out a portion of tlie side or end of a board or timber X to 
receive the end or side of another, Y. It nuiy then be nailed from 
either the side or end or from both. The neatest way in small boxes 
is from the end, or better still it may be only glued. 

No. 25. A dado or g ran red joint, Fig. 266, is made by cutting 
in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other 
member fits. Properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a 
dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove 
while the l)ack of the drawer is inserted in a dado. Where the whole 



158 ITAXDWORK IX WOOD. 

of the end of one nieniber is let into tlie other, siieh a dado is also 
called a housed dado. Treads of stairs are housed into string boards. 

To lav out a dado joint : After carefully dressing up both pieces 
to be joined, locate accurately with a knife jioint, on the member to 
be dadoed, called X, one side of the dado, and square across the piece 
with a try-square and knife. Then locate the other side of the dado 
by placing, if possible, the proper part of tbe other member, called Y, 
close to the line drawn. If this method of superposition is not pos- 
sible, locate by measurement. Mark, with a knife point, on X, the 
thickness thus ol)tained. Square both these lines as far across the 
edges of X as Y is to be inserted. Gage to the required depth on 
l)Oth edges with tbe marking-gage. 

To cut tlic joint: First make with the knife a triangular groove 
on the waste side of each line, as indicated in Fig. !•!, p. GO, and 
starting in the grooxcs thus made, saw witli tbe baek-saw to the gaged 
lines on both edges. Tbe waste mav now be taken out either with a 
chisel or with a routei-. Fig. I'i2, \). s;!. Tbe second member. Y. 
shoubl just tit into a dado thus made, but if tbe joint is too tight, 
the cheeks of the da(b) nuiy be pared witb a ebisi''. In delicate work 
it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only tbe knife and chisel. 

Xo. Ji). A iliido mill nihhrt. Fig. 500, is made by cutting a dado 
in one member, X, and a rabbet on the oilier. ^'. in such a way that 
tlie projecting parts of l)oth members will lit tight in the returns of 
the other member. It is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface 
for gluing. 

Xo. ,J7. A i/iiilo. loiiijur mid nihhrf. Fig. ■,?()<), is a conip(^und 
joint, made by cutting a rabbet on one mend)er. Y, and then a dado 
in this rabbet, into which fits a tongue of the other mendier, X. It 
is used in machine-made drawers. 

No. i2S. A (htvefaU diido or fjaiii. Fig. ^(iO, is uiade by cutting 
one or botb of the sides of tbe infitting nieudiei', V, ou an angle so 
that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise. 
It is used in book-cases and similar wcu'k, in wliieh the shelves are 
fixed. 

'l"o make tliis joint, lirst lay out tbe do\etail on tbe inend)er to 
be in^ei'ted. ealled \' . tlius: At-ross one end s(|uare a line (A B. 
Xo. '->8). at tbe (le|itb to wbicb tills uieniber is to be dadoeil in. Set 
the bevel-s(|U;i!'e at I be [iroper angle for a do\'etail. Fig. "i-lO. Score 
this angle on tlu' edij-es of the meinbei'. as at (' 1). Cut a groove with 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



159 



a knife on the waste side of A B. Saw to the depth A C, and chisel 
ont the interior angle A C D. 

Then lay out the other menil;)er, X, thus : mark with the knife the 
proper place for the flat side of 



/f /A JK JK i 



MiThing focfj->^ 



Y, square this line across the 
face and on the edges as for a 
simple dado. Lay out the 
thickness of Y on the face of 
X by superposition or otherwise 
and square the face and edges, 
not with a knife but with a 
sharp pencil point. Gage the 
required depth on the edges. 
Xow with the bevel-square as al- 
ready set, lay out the angle A C 
D on the edges of X, and across 
the face at C score a line with 
knife and try-S(|uare. Cut out 
grooves in the waste for the 
saw as in a simple dado, and 
saw to the proper depth and at 
the proper angle. Chisel or 
rout out the waste and when 
complete, fit the pieces together. 

No. 29. A f/ain joint. Fig. 
266, is a dado whicli runs only 

partly across one member, X. In order to make the edges of both 
members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner 
of the other member, Y, is correspondingly notched out. In book 
shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado. 

A gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that 
the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one 
edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. Knife grooves are 
made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. Before saw- 
ing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space 
so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required 
depth. To avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and 
chiselino; out of waste mav be carried on alternatelv, a little at a 




Fig-. 250 Laying- Out a Dovetail Joint. 



1(30 



]1AXD\V()KK IX WOOD. 




Fig. 251. Depth jrayp 
for Dado. 



time, till the r('(|uiiv(l depth is reaclu'(h It is easy to measure the 
depth of the cut hy means of a small nail ])rojeeting the proper 
amount from a trial stick. Fig. -^51. The use of the router. Fig. 122, 
p. 83, facilitates tlu' cutting, and insures an even depth. 

MOKTISE-AXD-TEXOX J OIXTS 

The tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a 

piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on 

both sides of the pait left in the middle. The 

mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the 

tenon and is nuide slightly deeper than the 

tenon is long. The sides of the tenon and of 

the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "slioul- 

(k'rs" of the tenon are the parts abutting against 

the mortised piece. 

Xo. SO. A .^ti(h iHorflsc-mnl-fnitJii. Fig. 2(50. is made by cutting 

only two sides of the tenon beam. It was formerly used for lower 

ends of studding or other upright })ieces to pi-event lateral motion. 

Xo. SI. A llirii iiiiirfisr-iiin/-irn<ni. Fig. 2(i<i. is made by cutting 
the mortise clear thi-u one meml)er and by cutting the de])th of the 
tenon e(|ual to or more than the thickness of the mortised member. 
The cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or foui' sides. It is used 
in window sashes. 

A thru moi'tise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a 
blind mortise-and-tenon (see below), excejit that the mortise is laid 
out on the two opposite surfaces, and the boiing and cutting are don • 
from both, cutting first from one side and then fi'oui the other. 

Xo. S^. A hiiihl iiiorlisc-iniiJ-triioii . l-'ig. 2(')(), is similar to the 
simyde mortise-and-tenon dest-iibed in 'Ml The tenon does not ex- 
tend thru the luoiliscd uieiuber and the cheeks ot the tenon nuiy be 
cut on two or I'oui- sides. 

'I'o make a blind mortise-and-tenon. tirst nudce the tenon thus: 
Locate accuiatciv with a knife point the shoudiTs of the tenon and 
s(|uare enliicly ai'ouiid the piece. On the working edge near the end 
mark the thickness of the tenon. Set tlu' nuirking-gage at the proper 
distance limn the working face to (UU' cheek ol' the tenon and gage 
the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. Eeset 
the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same 
wav from the wmkim; lace. 'I'heii mark and gage the width of the 



THE co.^I.^[ox joixts. 161 

tenon in the same way. Whenever there are several tenons of the 
same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the 
marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark a 1 
back cheeks. If a mortise-gage is available, use that. Always mark 
from the working face or working edge. Cut out a triangular groove 
on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a 
dado. Fig. !)1, }). ()(>. 

In cutting the tenon, first rip-saw Just outside the gaged lines, 
then crosscut at the shoulder lines. Do all the rip-sawing before the 
crosscutting. If the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for 
all cuts. It is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of tbe tenon to 
insure its starting easily into the mortise. 

Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a 
sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife nuirks on the finished 
piece. Then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the 
tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. As in 
the case of like tenons, if there are a nuudjer of mortises all alike, 
set the gage only twice for them all. 

In cuttliKj the tiiDrlise, fiist fasten the piece so that it will rest 
solid on the bench. Tliis may be done either in a tail vise or l)y a 
handscrew, or by c'amping the Ijendi-hook firm'y in the vise in such a 
way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. Then ta]) 
the l)ench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be beld 
tightly down on the bench. See Fig. 76, p. 58. 

It is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of ad- 
joining holes whose centers folow the center-'ine of the mortise and 
Avhose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. Take 
care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 13T. ]). 8(i, ami 
no deeper than necessary. Dig out the portions of wood between the 
auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to 
the knife-lines, taking care all rhe time to keep the sides of the mor- 
tise perpendicular to the face. This may be tested l)y placing the 
chisel against the side of the mortise and standing a'ongside it a 
try-square with its head resting on tbe surface. 

Finally test the tenon in the uiortise noting carefully where it 
pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. The tighter it fits without 
danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint. 

Many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. For this 
purpose a uiortise-chisci. Fig. (is. ]>. T^A. is desiral)le. The method is 



162 llAXDAVORK IN WOOD. 

to begin at the middle of the mortise, phicing the chisel — whicli 
should be as wide as the mortise — at right angles to the grain of the 
wood. Chisel ont a \^ shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, 
and then from this hoh' work back to eaeh end. occasionally prying 
out the chips. Work with the liat side of the chisel toward the mid- 
dle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise. 

Xo. SS. In a niortisc-aud-fnioii joint on rabbrted pieces, Fig. 
v^6G, the tenon is as much shorter ou one side than the other as the 
rabbet is wide. Jn Fig. 33, ab=cd. 

Xo. SJ/. A wedged niortise-aiid-tenon joinf. Fig. 26(i, is a thru 
joint in whicli after the tenon is driven lioiiic, wedges are driven in 
between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. The wedges are 
dipped in glue oi- wliite lead before l)eing inserted. The sides of the 
mortise nuiy be slightly dovetailed. It is used to keep a tenon tightly 
fixed as in wheel s})okes. 

Xo. So. .1 inuh/cd inoiiise-ond-tenon joint, Fig. 366, may also be 
made ))v driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of 
along its sides as in 34. It is used in ornamental joints as well as 
in carpentry. 

Xo. 36. A fo.r-titil tenon. Fig. •iiKi. is a blind inortise-and-tenon 
in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the 
width of the tenon. Wedges a)e di'iven into saw kerfs in the tenon 
before inserting into the mortise; then when it is driven home the 
wedges spread out the tenou and make it fill out the mortise. It is 
used in strong doors and also where the moi'tised member is already 
in place so that a wedged niortise-r.nd-tenon is impossible. 

Xo. o7. A dorctail niortisc-inul-lcnon . Fig. 3(i6, is a thru inor- 
tise-and-ten(m beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail. The 
corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide 
enough so that when the tenon is ])ressed well up against its beveled 
side a wedge may be di'iven into the s])ace left on the straight side. 
It is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is 
fixed against a wall. It is also used in machinery frames which are 
made of wood. 

Xo. -iS. A /linncd niortisc-dtid-tcnon. Fig. 267, is one in which a 
]iin is diiven thru ho'es hored thiu the mortised beam and thru the 
tenon to keep them from di'awing a])art. it is used in heavy framing 
as in bridges, in wagon-making, in window-sash, etc. 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



163 



No. 39. A keyed niortise-aiid-tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the 
tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable 
key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. It is used 
in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases 
and in other mission furniture. 

The keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and- 
tenon, except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges 
should be laid out thus: measuring 
from the shoulder of the tenon, locate 
by superposition or measurement the 
outside of the mortised member. De- 
duct from this 1/16" and square a fine 
pencil -line across the face and opposite 
side. This line will be the inside of 
the hole for the wedge, and the 1/16" 
is deducted to make sure that the key 
wedges against the mortised member. 
On the upper surface of the tenon, lay 
off toward the end tlic width of the 
wedge at this point, A B, Fig. 253, 
and square across. On the under sur- 
face, lay off the width of the wedge at 
this point, C D, and square across. 

Gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower sur- 
faces of the tenon. After cutting the mortise and tenon, l)ore and 
chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side toward 
the end on a bevel to fit the wedge. 

No. Jf-0. A tml- tenon or shoulder tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which 
the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder 
called a "tusk." The upper shoulder is beveled. The object of this 
form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at 
the same time to increase the strength of the tenon. It is used in 
joining tail beams to headers in floor framing. 

No. Jf.1. A double mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 267, consists of two 
tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mor- 
tises. It is used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry. 

No. If2. A haunclied mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is made by 
cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much 
shorter than the rest. The haunch o-ives the tenon great lateral 





,, 




f] 






1 


1 


A 6 _ 
C • P 






'J 





Fig-. 252. Keyed Mortise-and- 
Tenon Joint. 



164 IIAXDWUUK iX WOOD. 

strene,'th and saves cutting so large a mortise hole. It is used in 
panel construction, as where the rails are Joined to the stiles of doors. 

First i)!ow the groove in all the ineinl)ers. This should be of the 
same width as the thickness of the tenons, which is ordinarily one- 
third of the thickness of the frame. The groove is approximately as 
deep as it is wide. Lay out antl cut the tenon the width of the entire 
piece, minus, of couise, the depth of the groove. The mortise should 
not come too near the end. or the ])ortion of wood outside it will 
shear out. Hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to 
insure stiength in tlu' mortised piece. The rule is tluit the tenon 
should l)e one-halt the width of the I'ail. minus the groove. But 
enough of the tenon is left full width to iill up the groove at the 
outer end of the mortised piece. This is called the Jiaiuwh. The 
width of the mortise is equal to the width ot the groove, its length 
to the width ot the tenon. Before asscnd)ling the panel frame, put 
soap or tallow oii the corners of the paiu'l to ])i'cvcnt its l)eing glued 
to the frame. 

No. J/-i. Table or hi per ho imr/i i in/ . Fig. "illT. Sometimes, as in 
table construction, for the sake of stitfening the rail, or in ])laces 
Avliere it is desirable that the haunch does not show, the haunch is bev- 
eled from the tenon to the edge of the rail. 

Xo. Jj.!/. A liori'-foeed tenon. Fig. '^(iT, is one in which a cheek is 
cut from only one side. It is used where the rail is thinner than the 
stile and it is desiralde to keep the mortise near the niidd'e of the stile. 

Xii. 'i'l. .1 lionseil ninrflse-onil-teni)n . Fig. "iliT, is one in which 
the wlu)le of the end of one mend)er is let in foi- a short distance or 
"housed'" into the other. It is connuon in gi'ill work and in railings. 

Xo. Jpi. J s/iii-jdlnl or I'lnl or o/ieii nntrlise-iinil-tenon, Fig. 26T, 
is what w(udd remain if a moilised mend)er were sawn ofp along one 
side of the tenoned memher. W'inihnv screens and other light frames 
such as those for slates and foi' [trinting ])hotographs have this joint. 
This joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes, and is 
then cal'eil eoriier hirlrimj. 

|)(»\i;ta]l .loix'rs 

"Dovetail" refi'rs to the shape of the pi'ojeetions of one member, 
when looked at bi'oadside. These |)idjeeiions are called dovetails, or 
mei'eiv tails. 



THE COMMOJf JOINTS.. 165 

The projection^? on the other member are called tenons or pins, 
and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or 
sockets. 

No. 47. A fliru siiKjlc dovetail, Fig. 2'6'^i, is similar to a slip-joint 
except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail. It is used in win- 
dow-sashes. 

No. Jf-S. A thru iimttiple dovetail, Fig. 2GT, consists of a series of 
alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely. It is used 
in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes. 

To make a thru multiple dovetail joint, first S(|uare lines with a 
sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends 
of the dovetail's and the pins, d e on X, Fig. 250, and 1 m on Y. 
The distance of this line from the ends of each member may, if de- 
sired, be slightly (1/32") greater than the thickness of the other 
member. Divide this line, d e, on the member to be dovetailed, X. 
into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails). From 
the division points of these spaces, a b c, to the right and left lay off' 
one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also 
the same distance from d and from e, as at f f f f and g g g g. 

The strongest arrangement of dovetai's is to nuike them equal in 
width to the spaces between them, as in Xo. 48, p. 267. For the 
sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as 
the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than 1-34". 

Set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle A B C, Fig. 250, 
p. 159, in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is 3" and the 
short side ^". This is approximately an angle of 80° or a little 
more than one to five. From the points f f f f and g g g g lay off 
this angle to the end of the piece. Carry these lines across the end 
at right angles to the surface, h i. Fig. 250, and repeat the dovetail 
angles on the other surface. Mark plainly the parts to be cut out 
(the mortises), as on X in Fig. 250. Score with a knife point the in- 
ner ends of the mortises, d to f, g to f, etc., and across the edge at d 
and at e. With a dovetail-saw, Fig. 93, p. G6, cut on the mortise 
side of each line down to the cross line, d-e, and also along the cross 
line from d to f and e to g. Chisel out the mortises taking care to 
keep the line d-e straight and square. The ends (not the sides) of 
the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit. 

Fasten the other member, Y, upright in the vise so that the end to 
be tenoned will bo flush with the top of the bench, and with the work- 



166 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

ing face toward the bencli. Place on it the working face of X, (the 
member already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the 
mortises are in line with the working face of Y, and that the edges of 
the two members are in the same plane, as X on Y in Fig. 350. Scribe 
witli a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of Y' (f'-j' 
and g'-h'). Remove Y from the vise and square down these lines to 
the cross line 1-m (j-n and h'-o). Score with the knife point the 
inner ends of the mortises of Y (n-o). Saw with a dovetail-saw on 
the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the 
parts together. When glued together, the joints should be dressed off. 
Where there are several parts to be made alike, it is necessary to lay 
out the dovetails on only one X member. This may be used as a 
templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn sepa- 
rately. Or all the X members may be clamped carefully together, 
with one X already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and 
ends flush, the depth nuirk gaged all around, and then all sawn at once. 

The dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the 
members having the pins, and tlien su])erposing this on the piece to 
be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins. 

Xo. J/9. A lap or lidlf l)Und dovetail. Fig. 267, is a dovetail joint 
in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the 
thickness of the other member. It is used in joining the sides to the 
fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen. 

If the joint is to be used for a drawer front, the groove for the 
drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the 
joint. See also drawers, p. 190, and Fig. 287, p. 191. On the 
end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the joint. C4age the same 
distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides, marking from the 
front ends. Lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint, 
taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely 
within the. lower tail. Take care also to make the sides, one right 
and one left, not both alike, so that the groove will come inside. Lay 
out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side. X, on the 
end of the front, Y, as in a thru dovetail. Saw and chisel out the 
mortises and fit together. 

No. 50. A stopped lap dovetail. Fig. 3()7, is one in which neither 
the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. Hence the 
joint is concealed. The lap nuiy be rounded. It is used in fine 
boxes, trays, etc. 



THK CO:\niON JOINTS. 



le'; 



No. ol. TJie blind miter or -secret doveiail. Fig. 267, is a joint 
in which only part, say one-half, of both boards is dovetailed, the 
outer portion being initered. The edges of the boards are also mitered 
right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are 
invisible. It is used in highly finished boxes. 



BEVELED JOINTS 



A beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane 
of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet. This is 

called the "miter" and may be 




45 degrees or any other angle. 
It is a neat but weak joint 
unless reinforced by a spline, 
nails, or in some other way. 

No. f)i2. A plain miter. 
Fig. 268, is a joint where the 
beveled edges or ends abut and 
are simply glued or nailed to- 
gether. It is commonly used 
in picture-frames, inside trim, 
columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided. 

For gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way is with the 
aid of the picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, p. 101. Nails are driven oi 
splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued. Where this vise is 
not available, an ordinary metalworking vise may be used, as follows : 
Fasten one member, X, face side up, firmly in the vise. Bore holes 



Fig-. 253. Gluing- Tog-ether 
a Picture-Frame (See also Fig. 254. 




Fig-. 254. Picture-Frame-CIamp. 



16H 



IIANDAVUI.'K IX WOOD. 



in tJie other iiiciiilici'. V. at the pioper places for the nails. Insert 
nails in the hoh-s. api»ly the glue to l)oth niitered surfaces, place the 
glued surfaces together, letting Y project ahout 1/8" beyond X. A 
conrenient way to hold V in ]dace is in the left hand, palm up, whik 




Fig. 255. Picture-Frame-Clamp. (See also Fig-. 254.) 

the left forearm rests upon X. Drive one of the nails home, and 
continue driving until the parts exactly fit. Then drive home the 
other nail. Now fasten together in the same way the other two mem 
hers of tlie picture-frame, and then, one at a time, the third and 
foiiith jnitit. This is the method used in ])icture-frame factories, 
and when oiicc IcariU'd is very sinijile. 

Foi- gluing togetiu'r at once all the nu'inhers of a mitered frame. 
the de\ ice shown in Fig. 253 is convenient and is easily made. 
Out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



169 



pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of tlie ends, as 
shown in the illustration. By applying two c'.anips lengthwise on 
the frame, all four Joints nuiy he glued together at once. If the 
frame does not come u]) square, it may l)e s(|uare(l hy means of a 
temporary brace, A, in Fig. 253. 

The device shown in Figs. 254 and 255, is also an easily nuide and 
efficient tool. At least the small jiieces, which receive the corners of 
the frame, should be made of hard wood such as maple. It is self- 
adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow 
frame by over pressure. It is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to 
prevent their being glued to the frame. 

In sfluino- together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided tab- 
orets or columns, in which the members meet edgewise, one method is 
to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in 
wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, Fig. 256. Another method 
is to wrap a stout rope, such 
as is used for window weights, 
around all the pieces, properly 
set up, then to tighten it by 
twisting it w^ith a stick thru 
a loop. Fig. 257. A still more 
effective way is by means of 
the Xoxall Column Clamp, a 
powerful device, used chiefly 
for gluing up such pieces as the 
pillar of a centrally supported 
table. Fig. 259. Care must be 
taken with all these devices to 
protect the corners, unless they 
are to be rounded off afterward. 
A good way to protect them is 
with })ieces fastened together in 
the shape shown in Fig. 258, h. 
and Fig. 257, the interior an- 
gle being equal to the exterior 
ang'e of the piece to be glued. 
In the case of a taboret with 

slender legs, care must he taken to insert blocks between the separate 
legs as well, to brace them apart and to keep them from l)ending un- 




Fig. 2S6. Gluiiifr up a Column Joint. 
(Pinch-Doys at Top of Joints.) 



170 



IIANDWUUK IX WOOD. 



der the pressure. These luethoils li;ne the a(l\anta,i;e that they are 
speedy, sinet' all the pieees go togethei' at oiu'e: hut uidess the pieces 
fit exactly the joints will not close. 

Another nietliod is to glue and elani|) the pieees of the tal)Oi'et to^ 
getliev two hy two, using Idoeks as shown in Fig. "258, a. Cai'e 
slionld he taken to put the pressnre of the handserews as far out as 
possihle so as to he sure that the outside of the joint closes. This 
method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, 
the woi'k can he done nioie deliherately. Moi'i'over, if when three 
pairs of a six-sided tahoiet aie togethei', the othei- three joints do not 
fit exactly, th.ey can then he i'etitt(,'(l. 

x\nother method is to glue pieces ot soft wood on the exterioi- of 
each pieces as shown in Fig. 2.-)S. r. These hlorks should he of such 
shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. When the 
glue is dry. they are used as comu'rs on wliit-h to clamp the hand- 
sel ews. This luethod has the 
(lisad\antage that the hlocks 
may hreak loose at a critical 
uioMient. 

in addition to any of these 
methods of tightening the 
joints, to luake sure that the 
vWiU of the joints close tight, 
|iiiu-li-dogs, h'ig. 178, p. 103, 
luay he driven into the end 
grain, and corrugated fasten- 
ers. Fig. 228, p. 125, also driven 
into the ends, make the joint 
(|uite Secure. 

No. 5-3. A doweled miter. 
I''ig. 2()8, is one in which (UU' 
or luoi'e dowels are inserted and 
glued into liole- l)(U"ed into the 
heveled edges. It uuiy he used instead of nails, as in large picture frauu's. 
X(i. ■').'/. A splnii' (ir loiKjiir niili'r. I'"ig. 2tiS. is (Uie which has a 
spline oi- tongue inserted at light angles to the joint. Since it fur- 
nishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter. 

Xo. .')■'). .1 s/i p-friil In r or sli/i-lmi iiiilrr. i'"ig. 2(iS, is one which 
is strengthened hy a slip (d' hardwood glued into a saw keif cut across 
the miteied an^'le. It is used in nicl ure-frauies and in hoxcs. 




Fig. 257. Oiu- Method of (iluing' up a 
Six-Sided Taboret 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



171 




iVo. 56. A slip-dovetail miter. Fig. 268, is one in which a trape- 
zoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight 
across the miter. When dressed 
otf, it gives the appearance of 
a dovetail on each face. It is 
used for the same purpose as a 
spline miter. 

No. 57. A double dovetail 
l-eyed miter. Fig. 268, is one 

. ' 1-1 T 11 1 J. -1 1 Fig-. 258. Devices for t^luiiiff Beveled Edges 

m Avhich a double dovetail key 

made of hard wood is inlaid across the Joint. This is a favorite joint 

with Oriental joiners. 

No. 5S. A ledge and miter or lipped miter joint, Fig. 268, is 
made hy rabbeting and raitering the boards to be joined so that the 

outer portion of the two boards meet in a 
uiiter. It is strong and good looking and 
may be glued or nailed. It is used for 
tine boxes. 

No. 59. A stopped miter, Fig. 268, 
is useful for joining pieces of different 
widths, when both sides can be seen. 

No. 00. A double-tongue miter, Fig. 
268, is made by cutting on the adjoining 
edges tongues which engage in each other. 
It is nsed in high class joinery, on mem- 
bers that join lengthwise of the grain. 

No. 61. A stretcher joint, Fig. 268, is a slip joint in which one 
or both sides is mitered. It is nsed in frames for stretching canvass 
for paintings Ijy driving wedges from the inside. Two forms are 
shown in 61a and 61b. 

No. 62. A strut joint. Fig. 268, is a form of miter joint used in 
making trusses. 

No. 63 and 64- A thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint, Fig. 268, 
is one in which two l)eams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the 
thrust of the other. Tlie toe may be either square as in 63, or oblique 
as in 61. The pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. It 
is used for the batter braces of bridges. 

No. 65. A plain brace joint. Fig. 269, is one in which the brace 
is simply mitered and naiU'd into place. It is nsed for bracket 
supports. 




Fig-. 254. Columii-Clanip. 



172 HAXDWORK IX WOOD. 

Ko. 00. A lioitscd brave joiiil. Fig. ">?()!», is a joint in wiiieli the 
brace is honsed into the reetaniiular nienibers except that the outer 
end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diag- 
onally to receive the brace Mdiicli is cut to correspond. It is much 
stronger than 05. 

No. 07. All ohiiqur niortise-and-tcnoii or hevel-skoulder joint. 
Fig. 269, is one in Avhich the shoulders of the tenoned beam aie cut 
obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. The cheeks of the 
mortise are correspondingly sunk. By these means the tenon pre- 
vents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against 
tlie abutment. Thus a much largei' hearing surface is ()l)taineil. The 
whole is bolted or strapped together. It is used in heavy truss work. 

No. OS. A hrii/lr joint. Fig. 'iC)\), is an oblique joint in wliicli a 
bridle or "tdnguc" is left in an ol)li(|ue notch cut out ol' one beam 
Over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut oldicpiely in the other 
beam. ]t is used in truss construction. 

No. 00. A hirtl's iiioiifli joint. Fig. "iC)!), is an angular notch cut 
in a tind)er to allow it to fit snugly over the mendier on which it 
I'ests. It is used in rafters where they lit over tln' ])'att'. 

j\o. 70. A jilnin or rnhhnj or s(iu('i".i'il or ;/hic joint. Fig. 3(>9, is 
one in which the edges of two l)oards are glued and rubl)ed together 
tight. It is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc. 

To make tbis joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by 
side, and arranged in the jirojier order. Three considerations deter- 
mine what this order is to be: (f ), if llie grain is of prime import- 
ance, as in quartered oak. then the boards are arranged so as to give 
the best appearance of the grain. ('J), if possible, the boards should 
be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that 
of the adjac-ent oiu's. For this purpose the boards are so laid that 
the annual rings of one shall alternate in direetion with the annual 
rings of the next, Fig. *280, a, p. 188. (;;), if possible, tlie boards 
should be so arranged that after being glued together they can a'l be 
])laned smootli in tlie same dii'ection. Wlu'U the aI)ove requirements 
have been met so I'ai- as jtossibU'. this oi'der should be mai'ked on ad- 
joining edges for later identilieation. The edges of the boards to be 
joined should he linislied with a jointei'. 

Thei'e ai'e two |iiMiiei|»al iiielliods ot gluing edge-to-edge joints, 
rubbing and s(juee/jng. in a ruMied joint, llii' surfaces to be joined 
slundd be |i'aned so as lo meet tlii'U(Uit exactly. After ])ro])erlv ))lan- 



THE COMMON" JOINTS. 



178 




Fijr. 260. Applying- 
Glue for an Edge-to-Edtre Joint. 



ing one edge of each board, keep one board iu the vise, jointed edge 
up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. Then use these 
four tests for an exact fit. (1) Sight down the end to see that the 
faces lie in the same plane. 
(3) Examine the crack froui 
both sides. Be sure that both 
ends touch. Test this by pu 1- 
ing down hard on one end 
of the upper board and noticing 
if the other end is still in con- 
tact. If the other end opens, 
swing the upper board hori- 
zontally on the lower board to 
see where the high place is and 
then correct it. (3) S.ee if 

the upper board stands firmly on the lower board l)y feeling gently 
to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board, (-i) Slide 
the top board slowly on the lower one to feel if it adheres or ''sucks."" 
After the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if pos- 
sible, the glue is spread on them, Fig. 260, and they are then rubbed 

slowly back and forth in the 
direction of the grain, pres- 
sure being applied by the hand 
and care being taken not to 
open the Joint in tbe least. 
As the glue sets, the rubbing 
becomes more difficult. It 
should be stopped when the 
boards are in their proper 
relative positions. In rub- 
bing together the edges of 
two boards, handscrews may 
be fastened to one in such a 
a way that their jaws serve 
as guides for the other board 
to slide between, Fig. 361. Care must be taken to make the jaws of 
the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board. 

Another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and project- 
ing above the lower board. This spare hoard acts as a guide against 




Fig-. 2bl. 
Rubbiiiff a Glued Joint. 



174 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 



which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. 
The rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards. 

In joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. In this case, 
the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. 
The object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is 
likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the 
middle. The pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close 
up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in No. 75, the 
joint will bo strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards. 

^Ahen tbe fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the 
clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be to- 
gether, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set 
away to dry for at least six hours. Then another piece may be added 
in the same manner. If the boards are thin and wide, and therefore 
likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to pre- 
vent their buckling. The cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter 
than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of 
the clamps may come on the glued joint. 

No. 71. A rebated, rabbeted or filUstered joint, Fig. 269. Rebat- 
ing is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of 
wood. The re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate 
or rabl)et. A rel)atc(l joint, then, is one in which corresponding re- 
bates are taken off edges so that 
the joined boards may overlap. 
It is used in flooring and sid- 
ing. 

A lioard is rebated and fil- 
leted when two adjoining re- 
bates are filled with a fillet. 

No. 72. A matched or 
tougac-aiid-groove joint. Fig. 
'3(")ii. is made by making a pro- 
jection or "tongue" in the cen- 
ter of the edge of one board, 
and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they 
will match togetluM-. When used for flooring, the lower side of the 
grooved ttoai'd is sliglilly r('l)ated so that the upper edges will surely 
toiii'h. This s(H-t of lloorins- can he blind-nailed. 









-M^ 


^ 


fL-<^ 


s^^^ 

y 


^ 




/^ 


p^; 




^ 




// 


^^^ 




/ 










— ' 









Fig. 2<)2. PM^re-to-Kdg-e Joint, Doweled. 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



175 



No. 73. A headed joint. Fig. 269, is similar to a matched joint 
except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for 
decorative purposes. 

iYo. 74. A spline-joint. Fig. 269, is made by plowing correspond- 
ing grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip- 
feather. It is used in plank flooring. 

No. 7-5. A doweled joint. Fig. 269, is made by jointing the two 
edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel 
pins when the two edges are glued together. It is used in table 
tops, etc. 

Where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint 
is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels. 

The essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for 
them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. 
The following is a convenient method 
where boards are to be joined edge to 
edge, Fig. 262. Place the two boards 
back to back in the vise with the edges 
and ends flush. Determine approxi- 
mately where the dowels are to be in- 
serted. With the gage, mark short lines 
at the points of insertion in the center 
of each edge, gaging from the outside 
faces. Across these lines score accu- 
rately with a try-square and knife. 
Then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at 
the intersection of the lines. Fig. 263. 
If this is carefully done, the holes will 
be directly opposite one another, and 
equidistant from the faces of both 
boards. All the holes should be of 
equal depth, say 1", in order that the 
dowel-pins, which should also be cut of 

equal lengths, may be interchangeable. After boring, the holes may 
be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy 
slipping of the pins into place. The latter result may also be ob- 
tained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel -pointer, Fig. 123, 
p. 83. It is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the 




Fig. 263. Borine for Dowels in 
an Edge-to-Ed^e Joint. 



17(i HANDWOKK IX WOOD. 

length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. 
The dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is 

iip})]ied to the joint. 



THE COMMOX .JOINTS 
ReB'EREXCES : * 

Rivington, Vol. I. pp. 57-77, Barter, pp. 211-27.5. 

135-137, 238-242: Vol. 

II, pp. 291-295. Scldfii. \>]>. 50-130. 

Adams, pp. 1-30. Biiiltliii<i Trades Pockcthnok, pp. 21' 

Sickels, pp. 86-124. 221. 237. 

Goss, pp. 128-152. Griliith, jip. 8(5-104, 1(;4-170. 
Ellis. 1,),. 135-151. 



I'or lifiiera] liiblio^rapliy. soe p. 4 



THE CO:ilM.ON JOINTS. 




^=r- 



-^ 

/ Lapped and ^Trapped 



y 



177 




2 ruhec. 



3 Fished and Keyed 



5 b pi iced for tension 



S. ^ ^k_ 



4- Spliced for compression 



\rE 



^ 



6 spliced and tabba 



7 Spliced for cross sl'ra/n 









9 ~(c)c- nailed 



,^P^ 



c^ 



6 Doweled butt 



10 Draw-boir 



^^^*^ 


—' 


~y^ 




: - '^ 







\ ; 




// Plain butt 



1Z Olu'ed and blochcd 





Lroo'o lap 



Fig. 2()4. 



178 



HAXDWORK IX WOOD. 




Fiy. 2ii5. 



THE co:m:mon joints. 



179 








14 Rabbet 



X 



-Y 



Z5 Dado 



Y — 




19 Gam ^q ^j-^^ morTi:>c ma lenan 



Z8 P overall dado 




36 , fox Tail tenon 



Dovetail moTri:>e and tenon 
Fig-. 266. 



180 



II A KD WORK IX WOOD. 




Bare faced knon tlouxci morTi ie and renon 46 5lip Thm iingle dovetail 




thru muttipic dovetail 



Lap dovetail blcppca lap dovetail J)/ Blind dovetail 

V\M. 2i)7. 



THE COMMON JOINTS. 



181 



J2 



V 



^iip feather mitcT 




^lip aoveTail miler Double aovelail Keyed Ledge and md'er 




63 5quarc Thruil 



64 OMique ThruH 



182 



HAXDWORK I]sr WOOD. 




7i beaded 



~l nalched 




74 5plme 



Fijr. 2()'». 



TJ Uowelcd 



Chapter VIII. 

TYPES OF WOODEX STRUCTUEES. 

The articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for 
convenience be divided into four general classes: (1) Unjoined 
pieces; (2) board structures; (3) panel structures; (4) framed 
structures. A few illustrations of each class are given below. 

(1) SIMPLE OR UNJOINED PIECES 

Of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learn- 
ing of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for 
expression in design, and wdien finished are of use. 

Examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve- 
boards, ironing-boards, coat- and skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. 
Some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but 
planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72. 

Where there is more 
than one process involved, 
the order of procedure is 
of importance. In gen- 
eral, a safe rule to follow 
in each case is to plane up 
the piece true and square, 
or, in technical language, 
to '"true" it up. At least 
as many of its surfaces 
should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." Where the piece 
is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of 
the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time 
to square them first. For example, in making a gouged tray with 
curved outline. Fig. 270, the working face, the working edge, and 
the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. Then, 
after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut 
with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with 
the gouge or chisel. If there is incised decoration it should be cut 

183 




Pen-Tray. 



184 



IIANDWOKK IX WOOD. 





Chamfe 

/ ^ 


r 


Bci/c/ 















Fifr. 271. Difference Between 
Chamfer and Bevel. 



before ilie molding is cut, so tliat while being incised, the piece Avih 
lie flat without tipping. 

Those simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by 
cludiifcring. A chamfer is a surface 
produced by cutting away an ai'ris. It 
differs fi'om a tievel in that a bevel in- 
clines all the way to the next arris, 
while a chamfei' makes a new arris, 
Fig. 371. A thru chamfer extends tli<' 
whole length or width of a piece, while 
a stop chamfer extends only part way. 
Vov file laying out of a chamfer see 
p. 115. 

Til III chamfering is best done with a |>lane. Fig. 2T2. For this 
|nii|)()se ihe piece may l)e held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped 
hi the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which 
in tiiin is hcM in the vise as in Fig. 175. p. 1()3. The chamfers with 
ihe grain should be ])hincd before tliose across the grain. 

In chamferiug a four-s(puire stick into an eighi-sipiare, ihe piece 
may be gripped in the vise diagonally. I^'ig. 373, or il nia\- be held in 
a trough made of iwo siri])s nl' wood from cadi of which an arris has 

lieen chamfered and then the 
two nailed together. Fig. 374. 
A dowel or nail may l)e in- 
serted in the trough for a stop. 
S.top chamfers are pared best 
with a chisel. Fig. 375. held 
accoiding to c(Uivenience eilber 
llat side or bevel side U|). See 
under chisel, p. 5.3. 




(3) lioAiji) s'ri;i'("nTRi>:s. 



Fipr. 272. Tliru Chamfering-. 



These include such pieces 
as wall brackeis, sets of shelves, 
book-racks, plate-racks, di'awing-boar<ls. fooi-slools. taborets, and boxe^. 
The advantage of Ibis foim of construction is thai it is compara- 
tively easy to make; the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide, 
they are sure to shrink and swell. It is wise in all such work to trug 
and smooth up all the pieces at once, and if the wood is not thoroly 



TYPES OF A^'OODEN STRUCTURES. 



185 




Fig-. 273. 

Piece Held in Vise 

to Chamfer. 



seasoned, to keep the boards under jjressure till they are assembled. 
In the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece, they should 
be glued together before the surfaces are 
smoothed. Suggestions regarding a few typ- 
ical pieces follow : 

Wall Brackets. (1) There are three essen- 
tial parts, the shelf, the support or supports, 
and the back: tlic shelf to hold the articles, 
the support to hold up the shelf, and the back 
to hold all together, Fig. 276, a. The grain of 

the Avood in the shelf should iim left and right, not forwaid and back, 
because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break 

easily, and it also acts as a stiffener for 
the back. In case the back extends above 
the shelf, as in Fig. 276, a, the shelf can 
be secured firmly to the back, since there 
is side grain in which to drive nails or 
sci'ews. As to the direction of the grain 
of the support and the hack, this should 
1 un in the direction of the largest di- 
mension of each. Wheie the back is 
'ong horizontally, for security in hang- 
ing, it is better to have two supports.""* 
^Yall hook-sUelves, Fig. 277, pJate-racls, etc., are simply com- 
pound brackets. The shelf is the essential piece, the sides take the 
place of the supports, and the 
back is often reduced to strips 
merely wide enough to giv 
rigidity. 

The shelves may he cithci- 
gaini'd into the supports. Fig. 
266, Xo. 28 or Xo. 2!), p. 170, 
or a keyed luoi'tiso-and-tenou 
may ho used, Fiy-. 277. Tn tlu' 
latter case the liack strip nun 
have a short barefaced Idind 
tenon which is mortised into Fig-. 27s. stop chamfering. 




Fig. 274. Trough for PI anin< 
Chamfers. 




" See the School Arts Book for Nov.. 190G, "Design in the Woodworldng 
Class." bv Anna and William Noves. 



1H6 



HANDWOUK IX WOOD. 




Fi«-. 27t). Wall Brackets, Uouble-Huiig-: 
a. Sitiirle Support. /'. Double Support. 



the upright, Fig. 2?8. It also fits into a rabbet on the upper back 
side of the shelf. Made in this way the shelves can be knocked down 
easil}'. 

Foot Stool or Cricket, Fig. 
^79. The grain of the supports 
should run up and down, be- 
cause pieces with the grain hor- 
izontal would be likely to break 
tmdor pressure. Braces or a 
rail give additional support. 
The to}) shoukl not be larger 
than the base of the legs; oth- 
erwise a person standing care- 
lessly on the stool is in danger 
of being upset. 

A Draw in [/-Board is made 
up of narrow boards, with glued 
joints, with the boards so laid 
that the annual rings will al- 
ternate in direction. Fig. 280, a. It must be made so that it can 
shrink and swell and yet remain flat. For tlie luupose of giving 
lateral stiffness cleats are added. They may siiiii>]y lie screwed on 
the underside, tlie screw holes being large enough to ;\\\o\\' for shrink- 
age, or they may be dadoed in 
with a (lo\('tail dado. Fig. 280, 
h. or they may be grooved to 
a(hnit a tongue on the end of 
a hoard. Fig. 280, r. In this 
case screws passing thru large 
holes in the cleats hold them 
in ])lace. 

Tahorcls. The term taboret 
orig-inally meant a little tabor 
or drum, and was therefore 
used to designate a small stool, 
the seat of which consisted of 
n piece of stretched leather. 
The term now includes small, tablelike strictures for holding flower- 
pots, vases, etc. It might more properly be called a ''table-ette." 




Fiy. 



Wall Book-Case. 



TYPES OF AVOODEN" STRUCTURES. 



187 



When made up with boards having their long edges mitered, it 
has from four to eight sides. A six-sided one is shown in Fig. 281. 
In making, it is best to fit the joints exactly first, while the board is 

stiff, and then to cut 
out the pattern of the 
legs. Directions for glu- 
ing are given on p. 169. 
i^rrap-boxes, Fig. 282, 
and fower-pot hoxea 
may be made with the 
same construction. 

Rectangular Boxes. 
There are various meth- 
ods of joining their 
sides. The butt joint. 
Fig. 264, Xo. 11, p. 
177, is plain, simple, 
and good for coarse 
work. This joint may 
be reinforced as in 
packing boxes, Fig. 
283. 
Mitered joints. Fig. 268, No. 52, p. 181, are neat but weak, unless 
leinforced by a spline. Fig. 268, Ko. 54. 

The rabbet or ledge joint, Fig. 266, No. 24, p. 179, is both strong 
and neat. It can be glued and also nailed if desired. 

The rabbet and dado joint. Fig. 266, No. 26, can be glued with- 
out nails and is good for small boxes. 

The housed dado, Fig. 266, No. 25, is good for water-tight boxes. 
The mitered ledge, Fig. 268, No. 58, makes a very neat, strong 
joint which can be nailed or glued, but is 
more difficult to fit than a simpler joint. 
The dovetail joint, Fig. 267, No. 48, 
is very strong and honest, but the joint 
is prominent from the outside and it 
takes much time and labor to maki'. 
It is glued. 

The blind dovetail, Fig. 267, No. 
51, is verv neat and strong, and the 




Fifj. 278. 



Construction of a Knock-Down Book-Shelf 
Seen From the Back. 




188 



ilANDWOKK IX WOOD. 



joint is entirely concealed when done, but is very ditRcult to make. 
Tlic Bottoms of Boxes. Tlie plain or L'uU bottom, Fig. 284, A, 
is likely to shrink (see dotted line), and it is held in ]»hu-c only by 
the friction of the nails. The 
extended bottom. Fig. i\S4, B, 
overcomes the objection to 



1 


1 -i— ==i'i - i^i'-i -^- 


■^==^ 1 


k I I li: { k y. 


u 




1 ^ It ^1 


i 


Ld 


ttm-- -^^ It ~ 


'p. \ 





I'^iy- -SO. Diawiiig-Board Construction: 
II. With Cleats Screwed on Beneath; 
/'. With Cleats Dovetail-Dadoed in; 
, . Wiih Cleats Matched on Ends. 



shrinkage and adds a decorative 
featnre. 'Die bottom may be 
set in, Fig. '2S4, C. This is 
stronger tliaii the plain bottom, 
bnt the nail boles show. Th'^ 
bottom may be raljbeted in. 
Fig. -^84, I). This is better 
tlian the set-in bottom so far as 

the showing of the nail holes goes, foi' tlic nails may be driven in 
from below, and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous. It is practi- 
cahle, if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides, but if the side 
pieces are butted or dadoed, the labbct for tlic bottom shows. This 

may be clcvci'ly concealed by 
an insert, but that is patch- 
work, and not first-rate con- 
stiaiction. 

I'einforced liottom. Fig. 
284, E. A plain or full bottom 
is sometimes covered Ijy a base 
or cover stri]) to hide the joint 
and secure the bottom, as in 
tool chests. This strip }uay 
be mitered at the corners. 

The L/Wx of Boxes. The 

siiii|)h'st form is a full flat 

coxci'. t'ig. 2sr)^ A, which may 

be nailed or Screwed to the 

box. as ill packing cases. The 

(•o\f!' may slide into a groove. 

Fig. 285, P>, along the sides 

and into one end. the otlier end lieing lowered to admit it. The 

cover may bave cleats on its underside, l-'ig. 28."). E. which fit just 

inside tlie box and keep the tojt in ]»lacc. Tbe c'eats also ))revent th'^ 




Fig-. 281. Taboret. 



TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 



189 




Fig-. 282. Scrap-Box. 



top from warping. This is a common Japanese construction, even 

in fine boxes. The Japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon. 
The lid may be boxed, Fig. 285, D, that is, portions of the sides 

may be affixed to the top. These extra 

pieces are a help to stiffen the top and 

to keep it from warping. A boxed top 

may have the top board flush with the 

sides, Fig. 285, E. The disadvantage of 

this is that the top may shrink and part 

from the sides and give a bad appear- 
ance. The overlapping top. Fig. 285, F, 

obviates this trouble of shrinkage and 

adds a decorative element. In this case 

the top may be glued on or screwed 

from below thru the side strips. 

The top may be mitered into the 

sides, Fig. 285, G. The shrinkage trou- 
ble still obtains here. Otherwise the 

appearance is excellent. The top may be paneled into the sides, Fig. 

285, H. This has a good appearance if the sides are mitered or ledged 

but not if the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for 

the top shows. 

Any of these lids may be made removable or hinged, except the 

sliding top. For methods of hinging see p. 132. 

In gluing boxes together, it 
is a good plan to glue the ends 
and sides together first and to 
let these joints dry before 
gluing on the bottom and, in 
the case of a boxed top, Fig. 
285, D, the top. Care must be 
taken to see that the sides do 
not bow under the pressure. 
To prevent this, one or more 
false, temporary partitions as 
A, B, in Fig. 286, of exactly 
the length to keep the sides 

straight, may be inserted. In gluing together boxes with rabbeted 

joints, Fig. 285, H, pressure should be applied in both directions. 




Fig-. 283. Reinforced Butt Joint in Box. 



190 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 



In gluing on tlio bottom of a l)ox tliat is also to be nailed, the nai's 
shonlcl be driwn into the bottom iivst, so that the points just come 
thru. These points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom 
from slipping when pressure is a]>]iliod. Tt is often undesirable to 



^^^^^^S 



>'i^s?$^'^;$>s$ 



^ 



^ ^^^^^^ ^^m>:^\^\^ 



^\^\K<\\\\\V^ 



Fit^. 284. Methods of Attacliins' Box Bottoms. 

have nail lieails sliow. as in a top. In such a case, and also to pre- 
vent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads 
may l)e driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bit- 
ten oH' with the nippers, and points filed on the projecting portion. 

Prinrcrs, In the best form, tlie sides are dovetailed to the front 
for strengtii. Fig. "iS?. for whenever the drawer is opened the front 
tends to |)iill away fioiii the sides. This dovetail is half blind, so 
that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut. In order that 
the drawer may always run freely and yet tln^ fiont fit the opening as 




Fitr. 285. Forms of Box Consliuciiuii. 



close as possible, it is connnon practice to cut a shallow rabbet on 
tlic ends of tlie front, so that the body of the drawer is a little nar- 
lowtT tlian \hv front is lona', Fiii'. 'iST. Or the front mav be attached 



TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 



191 




to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint. Fig. 2(36, No. 
37, p. 179. 

The bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to 
the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play 
for shrinkage. The l)aek is dadoed into the sides, with either a 
straight dado, 
Fig. 2Q6, No. 
35, p. 179, 01 
dovetail dado, 
Fig. 266, No. 
28, and rests 
on the bottom. 
The extension 
of the bottom 
beyond the 
1)ack allows am- 
ple room for 

1 . T Fitr. 28i>. Clueiiitr Tosrether a Box. 

shrinkage. 

The best niaehine-made drawers are now made with the bottom 
paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot s!ip out. The 
back, as well as the front, is dovetailed. 

D ire ctio rift for Mal-iug a Table Drawer. Dress the front and sides 
to size. Fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet, 
leaving a little play all around it. Plow the groove in the fiont and sides 
for the drawer bottom. For ordinary drawers, a groove ^" wide is 

proper. If the ends 
of the fiont arc to be 
rabbeted (see above), 
do this next. The 
sides are best joined 
to the front with the 
half-blind dovetail 
joint. (For directions 
see p. 166). After 
fitting these, lay out 
and cut the dadoes for 
the back of the drawer. 
Prepare the bottom of 

Fi?.28-. Dovetailed Drawer Construction. ^'^'^ drawer thllS : the 




192 



HAXDWOEK IN WOOD. 




Fig-. 288. Door, Illustrating- Panel 
Construction: S. Stile: T. R. Top Rail: 
L. R. Lock Rail: B.R. Bottom Rail: 
M. Muntin: P. Panel; A. Double Mortise- 
and-Tenon; F. Fillet; A. B.C. Forims of 
Panels. 



,uraiii should run right and 
left, never front and back. If 
tlir drawer is so long as to re- 
(juire it. glue-joint the bot- 
tom, and fit it snugly to place. 
There need be no play right 
and left, and the bottom should 
extend as far back as the sides. 
If necessar}^ bevel the under 
side to fit the grooves. Assem- 
Ide all the parts to see that they 
fit, take them apart, glue the 
sides to the front and back, 
slip the bott(Mn into place, ap- 
]ily tile (-lamps, and see to it 
that all joints are sipiare, using 
a diagdiial hrace if necessary, 
Fig. 294. Fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block 
glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom 
and tlie back side of the front. When dry, clean up the drawer and 
fit it to its ])hu'e. 

(3) PAN'EL STRl'CTURES 

These include doors and cal)inets of all sorts. The principle of 
panel or t'al)inet constructidu is that there shall lie a frame composed 
of narrow members whose grain fo'lows the principal dimensions. 
In the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together 
and within this frame there is set a thin board or 
panel wliit-li is t'i'cc to shrink or swell but is pre- 
vented from warping hy the stift'er frame. The 
object is to cover an extended surface in such a way 
that the geiu'i'al dimensions and good appearance 
will not be atfeete(l by whatever shrinkage there is. 
Since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces, 
there is but little shi-inkage in them. That shrink- 
age is all that alTects the size of the whole structure, 
because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable 
extent. 'I'he shi-inking or swelling of the panel does not affect 
the geiKM-al size. The cross construction of the frame also pre- 



K— - t 



Fig. 28'i. 

The Way a Mit- 

ered Joint Opens 

on Account of 

Shrinkage. 



TYPES OF WOODEiY STRUCTURES. 



193 




Fig-. 2W. Chest Construction. 



vents warping, since, in the 
best construction every joint is 
mortised and tenoned. The 
l^anel may simply be fastened 
on the back of the frame, but a 
better construction is to insert 
it in a groove made in tbe in- 
side of the frame in which the 
panel is to lie and have free 
play. The panel may be made 
of one board or of matched 
boards, may be plain or have 
raised or carved surfaces, or be 

of glass ; and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished 

with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases. 

The frame of a door, Fig. 288, il- 
lustrates the panel construction. The 

upright, outside pieces are called the 

"stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails." 

There are also the "top-rail," the "bot- 
tom-rail," the "lock-rail" (where the 

door-knob and lock are inserted), and 

sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the 

lock rail and the top rail. The "mun- 

tin" is the upright between the two 

stiles. 

The joint commonly used is the 

haunched or relished mortise-and- 

tenon, Fig. 3G7, No. 42, p. 180; (See 

p. 163 for directions for making). The 

tenon is sometimes doubled. Fig. 288, 

and a fillet (f ) may be inserted to cover 

the ends of the tenons, or the joint may 

be a blind mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 266, 

No. 32, or in cheap construction, dowels 

may be used. The best doors are now 

made with cores of pine covered on the j,,^ jqi a cross-SecUon Thru 

visible sides with heavy veneer. Large ^ ^r'r^!. ^Lt'^t^ll 

surfaces are covered by increasing the ^^'^^.'^fn^'oT rIil'"'' shouider 




194 



IIANDWUIIK JN WUOD. 




Fig. 2''2. Table Construction: Upper Drawer 

Rail of Table Dovetailed into 

Left Front Leg. 



number of parts rather than 
tlieii- .size, as in wainscoting. 

I'icture-franics also belong 
in tliis class of structures, the 
glass taking the place of the 
panel. They are made with 
mortise-and-tenon joints, Fig. 
26G, Xo. 33, slip joints, Fig. 
l^GT, No. 4G, dowelled butt 
joints. Fig. 264, No. 8, end lap 
joints. Fig. 265, No. 17, and, 
Tar more commonly, mitered 
joints. Fig. 268, No. 52. Mi- 
tered joints are the easiest to 
make, for the joints can be cut 

in a miter-box, Fig. 181, p. 104, and glued in a picture-frame-vise. 

Fig. 172, p. 101. This joint needs reinforcement by nails, Fig. 268, 

No. 52, by dowels. No. 53, or by splines. No. 55. If the sides are of 

diiferent widths, the fitting of the joint is more ditticult. filtered 

joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames. Tlie rabbets 

are cut out with a rabl)eting-plane before mitering and assembling. 
The jirinciple disadvantage of a mitered joint is that, if the wood 

shrinks at all, it opens at the 

inside corneis, as in Fig. 289, 

because wood shrinks sidu'wise 

but not lengthwise. 

In window sashes, the dove- 

t;iil joint, l''ig. 2i)7. No. 47. is 

the (•oiiinion one at the u])per 

end of the hiwer sash and the 

h)Wer end of the upper sash. 

and the niortise-and-tenoii joint 

modified is used at the lower 

end of the lower and upper end 

of the Tipper sash. 'I'lie glass 

takes the ])lace of the pane'. 

Tn 1)1 ind sashes, the pinned 

moi-tise-and-tenon joint. Fig. 

267, No. 38, is comnionlv used. 




Fig. 2''3. The Fixing of a Drawer Rail, 
Seen From Below. 




TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 195 

When panels are joined together to enclose a space, then we have 
what is properly called cabinet constrnction. Illustrations are cabi- 
nets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc. 

In all these cases, the constructed panels may be treated as sepa- 
rate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed 
together without any other framework, tho the corners are often re- 
inforced by cleats or blocks glued into 
them. Sometimes, however, as in 
chests, Fig. 290, posts are used instead 
of stiles, and rails are mortised or dow- 
eled into them and the panels set into 
grooves in both posts and rails. In this 
case the bottom is raised from tlie floor, 
and may be dadoed into the bottom Fig. 294. Brace to insure Right 

., , Ti 1 ■ J 11 Angles in Assembling a 

rails, or doweiled into them or even Framed structure, 

supported by strips attached along their 

lower inside edges. The chest really is a union of both paneled and 
framed structures. 

(4) FRAMED STRUCTURES 

The principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the 
panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage with- 
out harm to construction and also to economize materials. Common 
examples are tables, chairs, work-benches, and frame houses. 

The Mahing of a Table. The standard height of a table is 30". 
There should be 25" clearance under the rails. This leaves approxi- 
mately 4" for the width of the rails. xA.ssuming tliat the table is to 
be of a siuiple straight line type with one drawer, the following 
method of procedure is suggested : 

Cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, 
'(see p. 47) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as j^os- 
sible before jointing. 

Dress to size the legs and rails. Stand the legs in their proper 
positions relative to each other, and mark them F E (front right), 
F L (front left), B E (back right), and B L (l)ack left). Plow 
out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the 
top. Fig. 297, D, if they are to be used. Lay out and cut the tenons 
and mortises for the end rails and back rail. 

The proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above 
it so that the top of the leg al)ovo tlie mortise will not sliear out. The 



196 



HANDWORK IN WOOD. 



K5,cJe l^o,l 

\£6u,cJe 



■/fur 



--$-■- 



Fijr. 2'i5. Drawer Mechanism. 



I'ails should Ijl' SL't lU'ar the oulsitk' oi' llie leg so that the tenon may 
he as long as i)ossil)le and the portion of the leg inside it as strong 
as possihie. A hauiuluMl mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 267, No. 43 
is sonu'tiines useih giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail. The 

])ioper proportions are shown in Fig. 
■.'IM. Wlien eut. these parts should be 
tenipoi'arily asseiuhled to see if thev fit. 
Inasnuieh as a drawer takes the 
] hue of a front rail, the front legs must 
he tied together in some other way. For 
ihis ])uipose two stringers or drawer 
lai's may he used, their front edges be- 
ing as fai- from the face of the legs as 
ai'e tile rails fi'om the side and back. 
The uppi'i' drawer rail may be dove- 
taileil at Inith ends into the tops of the 
legs, as shown in Fig. 202. If this 
takes more room than can well be 
sipaied I'ldm the depth of the drawer, it mav be oiiiitted. but it adds 
greatly to the still'ness of the tab'e and is an excellent means of 
fastening on the top by the use of screws ]tassiiig thru it. 

The (li'awer rail, also called the f(U'e edge, is long enough to partly 
overlap the side rails, into the lower edges of which it is gained so 
as to be flush with them, and may be fastened to them with screws. 
Fig. 2!»."). The construction may be further strengthened by also 
doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs. If there are two 
drawers, the ])ai'tition between them may be doweled or gained into 
these uppei' and lower stretchers. 

If the legs ai'c to ])c ta])ered oi' otliei'wise shaped, that should be 
done next. '^Dien g'ue and assemble the end lails with their proper 
legs, tak'ing care to see not only that the joints conu' u]) square, but 
that the legs are in the same plane, b'inally assemble the whole, in- 
serting, if necessary, a temporary diagonal brace to insure square- 
ness. l*'ig. 2!» 1. When (h'y. clean up the joints. For the making of a 
table drawer, see above, p. I'.M. 

To lit the diawci' to its |)laci'. I'unneis and guides. Fig. 295, must 
first l)e fastened in. The runin'rs are in line with the drawer rail, 
and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the 
back of the 'owei' sti'inger and the ba(k posts. On top of them and 



TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 



197 



in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between 
the front and back posts. Or the runner and guide may be made of 
one piece properly rabbeted out. 

If there are two drawers, a double runner lies between, and is 
gained into the middles of the 



€ 



2'iij. Openiiii' (or Drawer Cut Out of 
Front Rail of Table. 



back rail and the stringer, and 
on it is a guide for ])otli draw- 
ers, equal in width to the par- 
tition between the drawers. The 
drawers should run easily in 
their proper places. In order 
to insure this, the drawer 

should be slightly narrower than the opening wliich receives it. A 
little French chalk, rubbed on the sides and runners, makes the run- 
ning smoother. .Sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of 
the front rail, as in Fig. 296. In this case the drawer runners are 
supported between the front and back rails, into which tliev mav 
be gained. 

For the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint, p. 172. 
Dress up the top to size, taking special pains with the upper surface. 
If the grain is crossed, use the veneer-scraper. Fig. 151, p. 92, then 
sand, first with No. 1, then with Xo. 00 sandpaper, finish the edges 
carefully, and attach to the frame. 

For fastening the top to the table rails, several methods are used. 
The top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the 
rails themselves either straight up. Fig, 297, A, or diagonally from 




Fig-. 297. Methods of attaching- Table Top to Rails. 



the inside, B, or thru blocks or angle irons, C, which are screwed 
to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons, U, which 
are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail. The last 



198 



IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 



method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and 
swelling of the top. 

Chairs may be so simplitied in form as to be possible for the ama- 
teur to construct. The two front legs and the rail and stretcher be- 
tween them offer little diflficulty because the angles are square. 




Fitf. 2'>S. Chair C^)ll^^ll•ucli()ll. 



The two back legs, may, foi- the jturpose of simplification, be kept; 
parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between 
them, as in Fig. 298, A, and not at an angle as in B. The joining 
of the back will then offer little difficuHy. The principal difficulties 
lie ill the facts tliat t'oi' comfort and appearance the back of the chair 
shoiibl incline backwai'd lidtli altovc and below the seat, and that the 
liack of the scat should be narrower than the front. By keeping at 
right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which leceives the 
seat rail, the side seat I'ails will meet the back legs at a right angle 
in a side view. Fig. 298. The l)ack legs should be slightly shortei 
than Ibe fioiit legs, as shown in 1). 

'I'lie second dilliculty in\(il\-es tlie making of inclined mortise-and- 
tcnon joiiils. A. whei'e the side ]'ails fit into the leas. The making 



TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 



199 




Fig-. 299. Bendicgr Boards into 
Shape after Boiling- Them. 



of these can be facilitated by 
laying out a plan of the full 
size and taking the desired an- 
gles directly from that. It is 
common to leinforce these 
joints with corner blocks glued 
and screwed in place as shown 
in A. If there are additional 
lails below the seat rails, the 
easiest way to fit them in 
])lace is first to fit and clamp 

together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have all 
angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for 
the lower rails directly from the chair. The same method may he 
used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails. 

If it is desired to bow the rails of the back, which are above the 
seat rail, this can be done by boiling them in water for 30 minutes 
and then clamping th.em over a form of the proper shape, with a 
piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside, as in Fig. 299. They should 
be thoroly dried in a warm place. Then the tenons may be laid out 
on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side. 
The chair bottom may be made of solid wood, either fiat or modeled 
into a "saddle seat;"" it may be covered with cane or I'lish, or it may 
be upholstered. 

To upholster a chair seat, a frame should first be made of the 

shape shown in Fig. 



298, C. The stiips are 
about 2" wide and ^" 
thick witb their ends 
ha'f-lappetl. The seat 
rai's are rabbeted y^" 
deep and >4" wide to 
receive this frame, 
whic-h should be Ys" 
smaller all around than 
the 1)1 ace to receive it. 
The returns at the cor- 
ners fit around the legs at ^" distance from them. This %" pro- 
vides space for the coverings. After the frame is fitted, it is covered 



1 - 


■^ 


■^-, 


■^ 




■^ \ 




1 - 


> — 


:iL - 


> ^— 


■> 


-~ ^ 


Gcl.nR 


1 -1 


r-^^^ 


r— ^:^ 


_^-r-: 


l^r^ 


-l^-J 




t" *Je. "-^'M''^. '^' J' 



Fig. 301. Siding, Ceiling, Flooring. 



200 



HANDWOlUv J^• WOOD. 



with o" webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. Tlie webbing whieli 
goes back and forth is interwoven with that wliicli goes from right 
to left. Over this is stretched and tacked (also to the upper side) a 
piece of unbleached muslin. A second piece of muslin is tacked to 




Fij/. 300. House Construction. 



the hack edge and part way along llic side edges, k-aving for the 
time the corners unfinished. In the pocket thus formed horsehair or 
other stuffing is pushed, care being taken to distribute it evenly and 
not too thick. When the pocket is filled, the muslin is tacked farther 
along the sides and more hair i)ut in, until the front is reached, when 
the muslin is tacked to the front edge. The corners are now drawn 
in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so 
as to lie in well. The partings may be turned down and tacked on 
the under side of the frame. 

Finally the heather or other covering is stretched over the whole 
as evenly as ])ossible. The corners should he left to the last, then 



Ti'PES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 201 

clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn 
down and tacked, as was the muslin. The superfluous leather may 
then be trimmed off, and the seat should fit in its place. Or the seat 
frame may be omitted, and the coverings tacked directly to the chair 
rails. 

The bal]oon-frame house is a typical form of framed construc- 
tion, Fig. 300. The essential parts of a balloon-frame are: 

1. SILL, 4"x8", which rests on the foundation. 

2. BEAMS, 4"x8", which rest on the cellar posts, 6"xC)". (Not shown 
in illustration. ) 

3. FLOOR JOISTS, 2"x8", which rest on the sill and beams. 

4. CORNER POSTS, 4"x6", with 2"x4" studs nailed to them. 

5. STUDDING, 2"x4", which stand 16" between centers. 

6. WALL RIBBON, or girt, I"x8". which supports the upper story joists. 

7. PLATES, two 2"x4" nailed together, resting on studs. 

8. RAFTERS. 2"x6", which support the roof. 

9. TIE-BEAMS, 2"x(!", which prevent the roof from s]ircading tlie walls. 
(Not shown in illustration.) 

10. RIDGE-POLE, 2"x8", against wliich the rafters l)utt. 

11. BRIDGING, 2"x2", which stiffens the floor joists. 

12. SHEATHING. (1" thick), put on diagonally to brace the building. 
The rest is covering. 

13. FLOORING. (See also Fig. 301.) 

In flooring, Fig. 301, the boards are made narrow so as to reduce the 
size of openings at the joints when they shrink, and also to~ reduce the 
tendency to warp. They may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors, 
or matched to close the joint. For difference between slash- and comb-grain 
flooring, see Fig 55, p. 43. 

14. BUILDING PAPER. 

15. SIDING OR CLAPBOARDS. (See Fig. 301.) may either overlap 
without a joint or be rabbeted to fit. The best siding is rabbeted. 

16. WATER-TABLE. 

17. CORNER-BOARD. 

18. FURRING. 

19. SHINGLES. 

20. LATHING. 

21. CEILING. Fig. 301, consists of matched boards liaving a "bead" to 
disguise the joint and give a decorative eft'ect. 



202 liANDWOKK IX WOOD. 



TYPES OF WOODEN t^TRUCTURES 



Refekexces:* 

Simple Joined Structures. 

Benson, pp. 32-37. ^^•hee]er. pp. 86. •219-227. 376. 

Goss, pp. 91-1)6. Siekels. p. 120. 

Xoyes, tSchool Ails Bonk. 6: Griffith, pp. 84-104. 

89, 179. 



Panel and Caldnet Construction. 

Goss. PI). 117-118. 148-l.il. Sicked, p. 134. 

Compton. pp. 146-151. Wheeler, pp. 366-372. 



Framed Structures. 

Crawshaw. Sickels. p. 124. 

Wheeler, pp. 203-206. 238-297. liiiildiiifi Trades Poclethonk. pp. 221 

230. 

Coverings. 

Sickels. ],p. 128-131. Goss. p].. 141-144. 



''For general bibliography sec p. 4. 



Chapter IX. 
PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY." 

1. Avoid multiplication of errors hi/ making all measurcmenis (as 
far as possible) from a common starting point, and laying off all 
angles from the same line or surface. Illustrations of this principle 
are as follows : Before proceeding- with other processes, a working 
face and working edge and as many other surfaces as will finally ap- 
pear in the finished piece, should he trued up. At least the working 
face and working edge are essential to the proper "lay-out" of the 
piece, whenever measurements are made from an edge. 

In laying out a series of measurements, it is important, when pos- 
sible, that the rule be laid down once for all, and the additions be 
made on that, rather than that tlie rule should be moved along for 
each new member of the series. 

In scoring around a board with knife and try-square, the head of 
the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring 
both edges, and against the working edge in scoring both faces, and 
not passed from one surface to another in succession. 

In the laying out of a hah^ed joint. Fig. 265, Nos. 15-19, p. 178, 
the gaging is all done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of 



"Professor Eankine"s Five Principles: 

1. To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the 
pieces of timber they connect as little as possible. 

2. To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible per- 
pendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit. 

3. To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has 
to bear so that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest 
load which occurs in practice, and to form and fit every jjair of such sur- 
faces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly. 

4. To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength 
with the pieces which they connect. 

5. To place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be 
sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing 
or crushing their way thru the timber. 

203 



204 



HANDWORK IX WOOD. 




Fig-. 302. 
Marking- by Superposition. 



the joined pieces. Then, if the gaged line should be slightly more or 
less than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint 
would not be aifected. 

2. ]yhen possible, in hnjing out a joint, use the method of super- 
position, Fig. ;30-3. By this is meant the method by which the lay-out 

of one member is obtained di- 
rectly from the other by lay- 
ing (superposing) the latter 
on the former and marking or 
scribing the needed dimen- 
sions directly, instead of by 
measurement. It has the ad- 
vantages of simplicity, speed, 
and greater probability of fit. 
Familiar illustrations are 
in the making of halved joints, 
Fig. 2r).5, Xos. 15-19, p. 178. 
dovetail joints, Fig. 267, Xos. 
42-45. p. 180, and scarfed or 
spliced joints. Fig. 2<)4, Xos. 4-T. p. ITT. 

3. IForA; systematically. In case the same process is to be re- 
peated on a number of parts, complete this process in all before 
taking up another process. This is the principle of the division of 
labor applied to the individual workman. 

In laying out duplicate or multiple parts, the proper cross meas- 
urements should be carefully laid out on one piece and then 
transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately be- 
side it. So when a number of like pieces are to be gaged, all the 
parts requiring the same setting should be gaged before the gage is 
reset for another gaging. This is a great saving of time and insures 
accuracy. 

In making a number of like parts, if they are not too large much 
of the work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up. For 
example, to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood, the 
piece may first be brought to such dimensions that the length will be 
correct for the finished pieces and tlie thickness of the piece be equal 
to the width of the slats, Fig. 3(»;i. The face may then be gaged with 
a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required 
thickness of each slat, and the alternate Sj^aces be just sufficient for 



PRINCIPLES OF JOIXERY. 



205 



I 11 II II ^ 



Fig-. 303. Making: a Number of 
Like Pieces from a Given Piece. 



the saw kerf and dressing. The slats may then l)e ripped apart and 
dressed to size. 

Or, a long strip may be planed to thickness and width and then 
be sawn np and finished to the proper lengths. For example, in a 
initered picture-frame it may be convenient to ])laiie np two pieces, 
each one long enough to make one long 
side and one short side. 

In fitting up framed structures each 
part when fitted should be distinctly 
marked, so that there may be no con- 
fusion in assembling. 

4. V^liere pradwabh secure the 
same condHwns of grain in different 
elements of joined structures. 

Illustrations of this are as follows: The grain of the sides of a 
box should run continuously around the box, or, in the case of a tall, 
slim box, the grain of all the sides should run up and down. In 
either case, the grain in the dilferent sides is parallel. In a rubbed 
joint, Fig. 269, Xo. TO, p. 183, to be planed down afterward, in case 
the grain is not straight, much trouble in planing may be saved if 
the different pieces are laid so that they can all be planed smooth in 
the same direction. This may not be possible where the boards are 
joined so as to match the grain, as in quartered oak, or where the 
annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as 
to lessen warping. Fig. 280, p. 188. 

5. Where possible, alJoir for shrinhige irithout prejudice to con- 
struction. 

The most obvious illustration of this principle is panel construc- 
tion. In a panel, the frame, which is comparatively narrow, follows 
the principal dimensions, and hence does not seriously shrink or 
swell itself. But the panel, which is grooved into the frame can 
shrink or swell without harm to the general structure. 

In a gained joint, as in a case of shelves. Fig. 266, No. 29, p. 179, 
the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the 
shelves, and there is a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end 
of the shelf, so that if the shelf and support shrink unevenly, no gap 
will be appai'ent. 

A drawing-board. Fig. 280, p. 188, is so made that it can shrink 
or swell without losing its flatness. Shingles when properly laid, can 
shrink or swell without the roof leaking. 



206 HANDWuKK Ii\ V\'00lJ, 

(). WJwre feasible, iindereuf joiiicil surf dees so as to gire clearance 
on the Inside and insure a tiglii a [qicantnce. But e/tued surface.^^ 
shoutd he made to meet flat. 

Illustrations of this principle are as follows: The inner end of 
the socket in a dovetail joint. Fig. 267, Xo. -tS, p. 180, may he under- 
cut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place. 

The shoulder of any tenon may he undercut so as to al'ow the 
edges of the tenoned piece to close iip tight against the mortised piece. 

In an end-laji halved joint. Fig. 265, No. IT, p. 178, the edges 
should meet all around; if they are to he glued together, they should 
not be undercut or they will not glne well. 

In matched tlooring. the underside of the hoards is sliglitly nar- 
rower than the upper side so that the joint nuiy close on the upper 
side without fail. Fig. 301, p. 199. The ends of tlooring boards are 
also slightly l)eveled so as to make a tight fit on the upper side. 

7. Select the sinijdest form of joint and use the smallest number 
of abut niciits [bearing surfaces) iiossible. because the more compli- 
cated the joint or the (/reater the number of hearing surfaces, the less 
lil'elihood there is of a sound and ine.r/ieusire construction. 

Illustrations of this juinciple are as fo'lows: I'sually a single 
mortise-and-tenon joint is better than a double one because of sim- 
plicity, strengtii and ease of making. Where mucli surface is re- 
(piired for gluing, a double one may be bettei'. 

In a dovetail dado. Fig. 266, Xo. 28. p. 179, it is usually sufficient 
to make the dovetail on one side only. 

]\Iany very elaborately spliced joints have been devised, which 
have no practical advantage over the simple ones. Fig. 264, Xos. 4-7. 

p. 1 ( i . 

A butt joint, Fig. 264, Xo. 11, is stronger than a mitered joint. 
Fig. 268, Xo. 52, in a box, for the latter is almost sure to shrink 
apart. Where appearance is important, a ledge and miter joint has 
the advantage of both. Fig. 2()S, Xo. .")S. 

8. Keep a due proportion of strength betireen the fastenings 
{joints) (Uid the pieces fastened: i. e.. the construction sliould neither 
be frail on the one hand. Iii'cause the pieces of irood are ireal'cned l)if 
too much cutting, nor clumsi/ on the other hand, because then the 
fastoiings irould tie i nordinatefi/ strong. In other irords. the differ- 
ent /larts should be eijualhi strong. 



PRINCIPLKS OF JOINERY. 1^07 

Illustrations of this ])rineiple are as follows: In a iislied Joint, 
Fig. 264, No. 2, the plate should he attached so as to reinforce the 
splice at the weakest point. 

In a scarf joint, Fig. 2(5-1:, Xos. 5 and T, the angle should he 
oblique enough to give the greatest leverage. 

In a tusk tenon. Fig. 267, No. 40, the tenon is made but one- 
sixth the thickness of the timber, whereas the tusk is uuule mucli 
larger. 

Where a mortise is to l)e cut in a timber bearing weight, it 
should he cut in the neutral axis, where the cutting of fibres will 
weaken it least. 

In the mortise-and-tenon of a table-rail. Fig. 267, Xo. 43, there 
sliou'd be a wide shoulder above the tenon of the rail so that the 
top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. The mortise 
should be as near tlie outside of the leg as possible so that the inner 
corner of the leg ma\- remain strong. The tenon should he strong 
enough to share the strain with the shoulders. 

A dado joint, Fig. 266, Xo. 25, sluuild not be so deep as to 
weaken the supporting board. 

A tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised ])iL'ce. 

Pins or other fastenings. Fig. 267, Xos. 38 and 39, nuiy weaken 
rather than strengthen a joint if they are so placed or are so large 
as to shear or crush tlieir way thru the timber. 

9. Place each ahniiing surface in a joint as nearlij as posf^ihJe per- 
penclicukir to the pres.^iire which it has to transmit. 

Illustrations of this |)rinciple are as follows: the angle in a strut 
joint. Fig. 266, Xo. (52, should be eciual'y divided between the two 
beams. 

The thrust joint. Fig. 268, Xo. ()3. in a bridge truss, is exactly 
at right angles to the pressure. 

It is on account of this princijjle that a spliced joint for com- 
pression. Fig. 264, Xo. 4. is different from a spliced joint for ten- 
sion, Xo. 5 : and that a housed braced joint. Fig. 269, Xo. G(\, is 
better than a plain braced joint, Xo. 65. 

A joint to resist vertical cross strain is stronger when sea i fed ver- 
tical Iv than horizontallv. 



208 HANDWORK IN WOOD. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY 



Kkkerexces:* 

Goss. p. 132. Rivington, Vol. I. p. 57. 

Adams, p. 12. 



'For general l)il)lioiirii])hy see p. 4. 



Chapter X. 
WOOD FIXISHING. 

STAINS. 

The function of stains is to change the color, and to enchance 
the grain and texture of the Avood. Stains may be divided into 
four general classes, which are not, however, entirely distinct. 
(1) Oil stains, (3) Water stains, (a) made from anilines, (b) made 
from dyes other than anilines, (3) Spirit stains, (4) Stains due to 
chemical changes. 

(1) Oil stains. Advantages: they are easily prepared, are easy to 
apply evenly, and they do not raise the grain. Disadvantages : they 
cover the grain somewhat, are apt to give a muddy effect, they do not 
penetrate very deeply into the wood, and it is impossible to stain 
hard wood dark with them and at the same time keep the grain and 
texture of the wood clear. A convenient form in which to handle 
these pigments is Devoe's "coach colors,"' ground in japan. To pre- 
vent evaporation from cans once opened, it is well to keep them partly 
filled with water and the water covered with a little oil. For use, the 
pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine, in the proportion of 
one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine. Ben- 
zine is much cheaper than turpentine, but evaporates more quickly. 
The addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain, so that 
when the wood is well rubl)ed down a soft lustre can be had without 
any further finish. The stain should be applied with a brush to the 
wood, which may then be rubbed clean with cotton waste. Oil stains 
penetrate hard woods better when the wood has first been fumed in 
ammonia. (See below, p. 31f). Or. the addition of a little ammonia 
to the stain just before applying aids it in penetrating the wood. 

The pigments most used for oil stains are: burnt and raw umber, 
burnt and raw sienna, Yandvke brown, dro]i l)lack. and medium 
chrome yellow. These colors may be varied by mixing. For ex- 
ample, for a green stain, take two parts of drop black and one part 
of medium chrome yellow, and dissolve in turpentine or benzine. 

209 



210 llANDWOL'K JN WOOD. 

The addition ul' a litlk' vciinilioii i;ives a giaycr iiiuen. The green 
may be made bluer liv tlie addition of I'mssian bhie. but the blue al- 
ready contained in the blaclv gives a soft, pleasant green. 

For antique oak, add a triiie of bui'nt undjer and black to raw 
sienna thinned to the right consistency. 

For a reddish brown, tliin buint \niil)er to the right consistency. 
This may lie grayed hy the addition of a little gieen. 

A walnid stain may l)e had by adding a little Venetian red to 
asplialtuni, thinned with turpentine or benzine. 

AniUiK: oil .s7^//'//.s. Advantages: the cidors are clear and easily 
obtainable. ])isadvantages : the colois aie likely to he crude and too 
bright, and unless gieat care is taken the tones are metallic and not 
.M)ri enough to suit wood. It is necessary to purchase colors soluble 
in oil. 'J'lu'se lan he had of William Zinnst'r and Company, 1!)7 
William Street, New Yoik. Four colors are necessaiy to get the de- 
sired shades, Bismarck brown, dark yellow, dark lilue, and black. Bis- 
marck brown comes in powdered form at $"^.4(» per II)., dark yellow 
comes in powdeied form at $2.40 per II)., dark blue comes in lumps 
at $3. '20 ]n'V lb., black comes in lum])s at $2.-l() per lb. These may 
be dissolved in Ihiee ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled oil,, 
to one teaspooiiful of cojoi-, a |)rocess that will take place much faster 
if the mixtui'c is heateil. (ireat care must he taken, liowever, noi 
to set lli'e to the t III peiitine. Wlien cool, thin with tur])entine to the 
proper consistency, ap})ly to the wood with a brush and rul) clean 
with cotton waste. 

(2) Wilier ,'<liiiit.'<. Advantages: they are cheap and clear and 
do not obscui'e the grain as oil stains aie likely to do, and they pene- 
trate dee])ly into the wood, espt'cially when applied liot. They may bt 
made of an\- coloiing matter that is soluble in water, and are j)ar- 
ticularlv good for hard woods and for use in large (piantities. Tt is 
possible to stain wood ]nuch (hii'ker with them than with oil stains. 
]\Ioreover, the brushes used with them are easily taken care of. Dis- 
advantages: thi'y are ditlicult to jirepaie and they raise the giain of 
the wood. The foimer disadvantage may he overconu' by liuying 
tliem all ]uepared. 

The dilhciilty of the raising of the grain is to be obviated either 
by wa^hing the wood in watei' and. wlu'ii dry, rubbing down with 
sand])aper before applying the stain, or rubiiiug down after staining 
and re-staining when iieeessarv. 



WOOD FINISHING. 211 

a. Water stains made from anilines. Aniline stains are likely 
to fade, but the addition of a little vinegar is said to hinder fading. 
For ^lahogaiiA', dissolve 1 oz. Bismarck brown in 3 quarts of boiling 
water. Use when cool. 

b. Water stains made from dyes other than anilines. The num- 
ber of these is legion; some of the simpler are given. 

Eeddish Brown. Dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a wal- 
nut in y2 cup (-i oz.) of hot water. Apply hot to wood repeatedly 
until desired color is obtained. 

Black. Dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut 
in Yi cup (4 oz.) of boiling water. Add a teaspoonful of alum. 
Apply repeatedly until the wood is dark brown. Prepare acetate 
of iron according to directions for making dark brown, on next page. 
Apply this to wood already browned with logwood. If the grain 
is raised, sandpaper lightly, or rub with steel wool and then with 
boiled oil. 

(3) Spirit Stains. These are expensive and hence little used. A 
few illustrations are given.'' 

Black. Aniline black, cut in alcohol, gives a bluish etfect but if 
the wood thus stained is rubbed with raw linseed oil, it become^; black. 

Another Black. Dissolve extract of logwood in wood alcohol. De- 
velop the color by going over the work with tincture of muriate of iron. 

Golden Oak. Dissolve asphaltum in naphtha until it is as thin 
as water and makes a yellowish stain ; or to equal parts of asphaltum, 
varnish, and gold size japan, add enough turpentine to thin to propei 
consistency. 

Mahogany. Dissolve Bismarck Brown in alcohol. 

Aniline stains may be cut in alcohol and mixed with equal parts 
of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate) and all applied in 
one coat. 

(4) Stains due to cheinical changes. Certain substances like am- 
monia, potassium bichromate, and acetate of iron, give chemical re- 
actions on certain woods and make very effective and inexpensive 
stains. Moreover the artistic effect of some of them is unexcelled. 
When applied in solution they are likely to raise the grain. 

The eff'ect of ammonia, either the liquid or fumes, is much the 
same as the effect produced by aging or weathering. Ammonia also 
cuts the pith rays of oak and makes it possible for other stains to 

'*For detailed directions for treatment of different woods, see Hodg- 
son, pp 112-153. 



'21- IIAXDWURK IN WOOD. 

take hold. For this reason it is much used as a preliminary treat- 
ment for oak finishes. The color effect is to lessen the yellow and 
increase the gray. 

Tlie method of application is simply to expose the wood for a 
day or more to the fumes of strong ammonia (28%) in a tightly 
closed box. If the surface of the wood is moistened with water just 
before exposure, it turns darker than if exposed dry. The stain 
penetrates so deeply that it uuiy be sandpapered after the exposure 
without harm. After fuming and sandpapering the surface should 
be oiled to prevent finger marks. 

Dark l)rown for chostnut. or oak. oi- mahogany. This is obtained 
witli a sdlution of acetate of iron, iiiaile as follows: digest one part 
by measure of iron dust in 8 parts of glacial acetic acid. After the 
chemical action is well started, add several times as much water 
to keep the mixture liquid. When the chemical action has ceased, the 
stain is ready for use. If a lighter sliade is desired it may be still 
further diluted. 

To darken mahogany. Make a saturate solution of bichromate of 
potash. Dilute a portion of it with water ^, or yi , or ^, or in any 
proportion according to the darkness required. One part of the solu- 
tion to two or three ])arts of water gives a good color. Apply the 
solution to mahogany with a brush. This solution alone is likely to 
be too brown. I'he reddish tinge of the wood may be saved by mix- 
ing as follows : 

100% solution of l)ichromate of potash....! pai't 

Rreinig's mahogany water stain 1 ])art 

Water 2 parts 

Apply with a hiusli and wipe oil' the surplus. 
Bichromate of potash on oak gives a rich brown. 
Bichromate of potash on ash gives a rich red. 
Bichromate of potash on black walnut gives a dark brown. 
A decoction of logwood treated with tannin gives yellow red, 
with sugar of lead gives gray brown, with fi'rric nitrate gives black. 
A decoction of fustic extract treated with dilute nitric acid gives 
l)rown, etc." 



"For other clVcets ohtaiiU'd hy cliciiiical cliaiijics. see tahlc on pp. 185- 
180 in Brannt's Painter, (lihler <inil \(iniis]irr. and also Woodcraft !):71, 
June. '08. 



WOOD Fiis'isiriNG. 213 

CoiiiiHcrcial Stains. Some of the more noteworthy commercial 
stains, suitable for school use, are those of: 

The Bridgeport Wood Finishing Company, 55 Fulton St., New- 
York. Among their water stains some of the best are : Flemish oak, 
Aveathered oak. walnut, silver gray, forest green, and mahogany, es- 
pecially if the latter is modified with bichromate of potash. Othei 
effects may be obtained by mixing these, as forest green, which is too 
briglit alone, mixed with walnut or some other reddish color gives 
a grayish green. Of the penetrating oil stains the golden oak and 
mahogany are very good. 

The Sherwin Williams Company, of Cleveland, Xewark, Chicago, 
etc.. produce a fine line of spirit stains. 

The Adams and Elting Company, Chicago, have a stain called 
ade:ite, in which banana oil appeals to be the solvent. It is very 
easy of ap]ilication. only one coat being needed. It is applied with 
the brush. 

Berry Brothers, of Detroit, Mich., the famous varnish makers, 
furnish a great variety of colors in their water stains and also a com- 
bined stain and finish under the trade name of Lacklustre. 

Devoe and Eeynolds. 101 Fulton Street, M'ew York, make a var- 
iety of oil stains which can be applied either in one coat with a brush 
or rubbed in with cotton waste. 

The Chicago Varnish Company, make a specialty of artistic chem- 
ical stains, but unfortunately they are not yet (1910) available in 
small quantities. 

S;. C. Johnson and Son, Eacine, Wis., furnish a variety of spirit 
stains called "wood dyes."' 

The Craftsman Workshops, Eastwood, X. Y.. furnish oil stains to 
be applied with a brush or waste. These are deservedly famous foi 
they give especially soft, agreeable efl'ects on fumed oak. 

In general, it should be remembered that oil stains are better for 
soft woods, water stains for hard woods, and the spirit stains are good 
for both. But without a sense of color, no number of recipes will 
avail. 

riLLixo 

The object of filling is to give a perfectly level and ncm-absorbenl 
basis for varnish covering or other finish. This can be done with 
shellac carefully rubbed down with fine oiled sandpaper, but this 
method requires much toil and patience, and has therefore been given 



214 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

up by fuiniture iinislieis. The best fillers, (such as "Wheeler's Wood 
filler")," are made of silex in needle-shaped particles mixed with 
raw linseed oil, japaii and turpentine. When applied to wood it 
should be thinned with turpentine or benzine, and applied with a 
brush along the grain. As it dries, the color becomes grayish and it 
should then be rubbed oft' acio-s the grain with fine shavings or cot- 
ton waste. It is best to have fillers of several colors on hand, such 
as light, black, mahogany, and "golden oak" to be used according 
to the stain applied. The filler slioidd he applied after staining the 
wood and should be allowed to dry thoroly. say foi'ty-eight liouis, be- 
fore it is covered with shellac or varnish. Its use is more necessary 
on open grained woods, like oak. chestnut, and mahogany, than on 
close grained woods, lil<e whitewoocK ma])le, and pine, but it is best 
to use it on all woods that are to l)e highly polished. 

Cans should be kt'pt tightly covered when not in nse. Since oil 
darkens wood, if wood is to he k'e])t light, a filler without oil, as whit- 
ing and turpentine, should l)e Wi^vi]. 

I'OLISIIKS 

1 There aie three ])iincipal forms of wood polishes, each of which 
has its virtues and defects. They are: (a) oil, (b) wax, (c) the 
varnishes. 

(a) Oil. The gieat advantage of oil jiolishing is its permanence. 
It will stand both wetting and wai'inth and gives a dull, glossy 
finish. Ill some woods, as sweet gum and mahogany, it In'ings up the 
figure. 

Process. Apply either raw or boiled linseed oil diluted with five 
parts of benzine or turpentine. The advantages of dilution aic that 
the mixture penetrates the wood better, leaves a thinrrer film on the 
surface and is more economical. Then nib, luh, I'ub, day aftei' (hiy. 
I.ittle and often with unlimited friction, is the best rule. This makes 
a nice finish for well-fumed chestnut, turning the color to a rich 
brown. 

j (b) ]V<i.r. Wax is an old p]nglish polish, commonly irsed before 

French ]>olish and varnish were introduced, especially for hard woods 
like oak. Its advarrtages are that it is chea]), easily prepared, easily 
applied, and easily !'e|taired. lis disadvantages are that it will not 
stand wetting, is easily marred, recpiiics constant care, is rrot so hard 

"Made hy tlic Bridgeport Wood Finisliiii^r (•„., 155 Fnlton St.. X. Y. 



WOOD FINISHING. 215 

and dry as varnish, turns slightly sticky with warmth, and is likely to 
turn white in devices. 

To prepare it. To one part of melted beeswax add one part of tur- 
pentine. Mix and cool. It can be bought prepared, as, Bridgeport 
Wood Finishing Company's "Old Dutch Finish," Butcher's Wax, 
Johnson's Wax, and others. 

Process. Kub the wax evenly over the suiface with a stiff brush 
or the fingers. Let it dry for some hours, and then rub with a cloth; 
flannel or a piece of felt is best. Put on several coats, leaving the 
work over night between coats. Eub often with a warm cloth. 

(c) Varnishes. The function of varnishes is to covei- wood with 
a hard, transparent coating that is non-porous and im])ei'vious to 
moisture. There is a great range among them, from thin, easily worn, 
dull finishes to durable, strong, and highly polished coatings called 
"rubbing varnishes." The polished suiface can be secured on'y by 
much labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good var- 
nish, carefully rubbed down. 

Varnish nuiy be applied to wood, stained, painted, or in its natural 
condition as well as to meta', leather, i)aper, and various other sub- 
stances. A good varnish should ))e adhesive, that is, it should cling 
iirmly to the surface to which it is applied; it should be elastic, so 
as not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the 
material to which it is applied; it should dry in a reasonable time; 
it should be limpid so as to flow easily in a^jplication ; it should b(> 
transparent and brilliant when ])olished ; and it should be durable. 
The necessaiy conditions for all good varnishing are a perfectly 
smooth, even, filled suiface of dry wood, a tem]ierature of aliout 70"^ 
and no dust in- the air. 

In general, there are two classes of varnish, Ijased on the char- 
acter of the solvent, (1) Spirit varnishes and (2) Oil varnishes. 

( 1 ) S])irit varnishes are sometimes made with copal resins dis- 
solved in some spirit, as one of the alcohols, benzine, acetone, etc. 
They dry with great rapidity owing to the volatilization of the sol- 
vent spirit, leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and brilli- 
ance, but one which is likely to crack and scale when exposed. They 
are not much used. Shellac is the most common and the most useful 
of the spirit varnishes. Its basis is resin lac, a compound resinous 
sub-tance exuded from an East India scale insect ( darterin lacca) 
found mostly in tlie province of Assam. The term "lac" is the same 



216 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

as *"laldi"" wliich means lUU.OOU and is indicative of the countless 
hosts of insects which are the source from wliii-h this gum is ob- 
tained. The larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of 
young shoots of certain lac-bearing trees, varieties of Ficus, draw out 
the sap for nutriment, and at once exude a resinous secretion which 
entirely covers their bodies and the twigs, often to the thickness of 
one-half inch. The females never escape and after impregnation their 
ovaries become filled with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye 
known as hic dye. The encrusted twigs are gathered by the natives 
in the spring and again in the autumn. Iiefore the young are hatched, 
and in this condition the product is known as "stick lac." After 
being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from 
the coloring matter the product is known as "seed lac.'" It is then 
melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in a form called 
"shell lac."" This is what is known as orange shellac in the market. 
It may be bleached by boiling in caustic potash, and passing chlorine 
thru it until the resin is precipitated. It is further whitened by 
l.'cing pulled. This is what is known in the nuirket as "white shellac.*" 
It comes in lum]is. Orange shellac is the stronger and is less likely 
to deteriorate, but white is easier to a])ply because it sets less rapidly. 
Another advantage of the white is its colorlessness. Shellac is solu- 
able in both grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) and wood alcohol (methyl 
alc-ohol). but grain alcohol is preferable. Great care must be taken 
not to mix even a droj) of water in it or it will curdle. To make 
])erfect the process of ordinary filling, shellac may be used as a filler 
either by itself or preparatory to other processes. Since it dries 
(piickly it can l)e rubbed down in six or eiglit hi>urs either with Xo. 
<•() sand-paper oiled, or better, with Xo. ()() steel wool. This jirocess 
wlicii repeated several times gives a good "egg-shell"" finish. It may 
be ajiplied alone over stained wood or the shellac itself may be colored 
with aniline dyes cut in alcohol. This, for example, is an easy way to 
get a black finish. 

.\ good watei-pi'oof wood polish is niadi,' thus: 1 pint aU-ohol. 
2 oz. gum benzoin, V4 oz. gum sandarac, ^4 oz. gum anime. Put in 
a bottle, and put the bottle in a hot water bath until all solids are dis- 
solved. Stiain and aild '4 gill clear poppy oil. Shake well and apply 
with cotton cloth. 

.\ soft, dull, glossy finish may l)e ohtaiiieil liv apjilving two coats 
of a mi\tiii-e of one part each of white shellac and banana oil (amyl 
acetate). \\'lien (h-y. sandpaper lightly and wax. 



WOOD FINISHING. 



217 



French poUsIiing. The finest of shellac finishes is French polish. 
It is a thin, clear, permanent finish, bnt the process takes time and 
patience. It is not nuich used in practical work, because of the 
time expense, bnt is often employed in school shops, because only a 
few materials are necessary, it dries quickly, and gives a beautiful 
finish. The polished surface is obtained by adding successive thin 
coats according to the following process: 

(1) Preparation. The surface of the wood must be perfect'y 
smooth and even, sandpapered in the direction of the grain, stained, 
if desired, filled, rubbed smooth and ipiitc dry. (2) Applv two or 
three thin coats of shellac. After each coat when dry, rub witli 
IsTo. 00 oiled sandpaper or No. 00 steel wool. Wipe thoro'y. (3) 
Make three pads, about the size of a walnut, of clean, white, cotton 
waste, enclosed in some fine old or washed cloth with no sizinsf or 
lint, — one pad for shellac, one for oil, and one for alcohol. Fill one 
pad with shellac of the consistency of milk, enough in the pad so that 
when squeezed hard it will ooze out. The common mistake is to put 
too much shellac into the pad. Hub with circular motion, as indi- 
cated in Fig. 304, never letting 
the pad stop on the surface. 
(4) Sprinkle a very little finely 
powdered pumicestone and put 
a little oil on the surface of the 
wood here and there with the 
ti]) of a finger. Huh with sec- 
ond pad until surface is dull. 
Wipe clean. Eepeat (3) and 
( 4 ) several times. Some use 
law linse('<l oil to prevent stick- 
ing. Others use three or four 
cloth coverings on the shellac 
pad, removing the outer one as 
it dries. A simpler w-ay is to keep the shellac in ])ad, 1, thin by 
irioistening with a little alcohol. (5) Spiriting ott' (Follows process 
4.) Dampen pad, 3, with very little alcohol and wipe quickly in 
the direction of the grain. This should remove the circular marks. 
Too much alcohol in this third pad will "burn" a dull spot. The 
rubbers are said to improve with use, and may be preserved in closely 
stoppered Jars to prevent evaporation. The different kinds of pads 




Fig-. 304. 



Direction of the Pad in French 
Polishing. 



'218 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 

should he ke])t scpainte. Or thr cotton waste may he thrown away, 
and llie ehiths washed in stron_i>- hoiax water. In the process just 
deserihed, shel'ac alone, dissolved in alcohol, is used. The shellac 
may be used with other ingredients : for example, 1 pint grain alco- 
hol, V4 oz. gmn coj)al. ^4 oz. gum arahic. 1 oz. shellac. Strain 
through muslin. 

Another reci])e for finishing. Tse 4 drains grain alcohol, 2 drams 
orange shellac, 5 di'ams tincture of henzoin, 1 teaspoonful of olive 
oil. Dissolve and strain. Apply with ])ad in direction of grain. 

Oil or Copal Varnish('><. The old Cremona varnish once used for 
violins is sup])ose(l to have had amljcr ( (Ireek, electron) as its base. 
It was a fossilized coniferous resin found on the shore of the Baltic 
Sea. The ait of making it is said to he lost, ])iobably because of 
the difHculty and danger of melting it. ior this can be done only in 
oil on account of the danger of ignition. Hence its use has been 
abandoned. 

Peihaps the most beautiful of all Nainislu's is !ac(pier. much used 
in China and Japan. It is made from the juii'e of the !ac(|uer tree, 
(Rlhiis ccniicifcrd ) which is tapp(Ml during the summer months. The 
juice is stiained and eva]»oia1('(l and then mixe(l with various sub- 
stances, such as oil, tine clay, body pigment, and metallic dust, accord- 
ing to the waie fur which it is inteiidiMl. The uianuractui ing secrets 
are carefully guarded. The a]iplicati(in of it is vcvv difficult, the sap 
of young trees being used for first coats, and of o'd trees for the 
finishing coats. It must be dried in a dam}), close atmosphere. For 
the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rul^bed down and 
])olished. Even the presence of it is very ])oisonous to some people 
;;nd all workers in it are more or less affecte(l. 

I'lie solvent or vihicle of tin- moilein copal \ainislics consists 
principal'y of linseed oil with some tuipentine. Their base is (Vipal. 
a fossil, resinous substance of \-egetable oiigin. Tbi' gums of which 
they are made have been t-bemicallv altere(| bv long exposure in the 
eartli. Other gums, as mastic, dammar, sandaiac. and even resin are 
sometimes mixed with copal to cheapen the pioduct oi' to cause more 
rapid drying. Coi al is a geiiei'ic name given oi'iginallv to a'l fossil 
resins. Co[)als, as they are called, come fi'om Xew Zealand, Mozam- 
hi(pie, Zanzibar. West Afi'ica. I)iazil. and the rhili))i)ine<. The best 
of tile Copals is said to he the Kauri gum. oiiginallv exuded from 
the Kaui'i pine ti'ee of New Zealand. 'I'he tree is still existent and 



AVOOD FINISHING. 219 

produces a soft, spongy sap, but the resin used in varnish is dug up 
from, a few feet under ground in regions where there are now no 
trees. A commercially important copal and one noted for its hard- 
ness is the Zanzibar or East African Copal. It is found imbedded 
in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt 
of the mainland coast of Zanzibar, on tracts wheie not a single tree 
now grows. It occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to 
pieces weighing four or five p(ninds. The supply is said to be prac- 
tically inexhaustil)l('. 

As to the maniifactiiu' of the Copal varnishes: hrst of all, a high 
grade oil is boiled at a high temperature, with different materials to 
oxidize it ; for instance, red lead or oxide of manganese. The heat 
throws oif the oxygen from the red lead or manganese. The oxygen 
is absorbed by the linseed oil. which is then put away to settle and 
age. When a batch of vainish is nuule, the gums are melted in a 
large kettle and then the requisite amount of oil is added and these 
carefully boiled together. This is removed I'lnm the tire and cooled 
down to a point where turpentine can be added without volatilizing. 
These are thoroly urixed and then filtered under pressure and tanked 
and aged. The different grades of varnish depend upon the tieatment 
of the oil, the proportion of oil and turpentine, the qualities of the 
gums, the aging, etc. Some by rubbing give a very high polish, some 
give a dull waxy finish, some are for out-of-door use, as Spar varnish 
and carriage varnish, some are for floois, some for funiture. some are 
high priced, some are cheap. 

Process of A'arnishing. The preliminary processes are the same 
as those for applying shellac, i. e., the suiface of the wood must be 
perfectly even and smooth, and the staining, filling, and drying com- 
plete. Quick drying varnishes, like shellac, are applied, with but 
little on the brush. The heavy, high lustre varnishes, on the other 
hand, are applied with the brush full so that the varnish may even 
drip off the work. Then proceed as follows: Wipe off from the 
work the extia vainish with the brush and clean the hiush on the 
edge of the cup. Eepeat till the varnish is flowed over the work 
evenly. Be particularly careful, in that res])ect, of edges and corners. 
S,et to dry in a dustless place. When dry and hard repeat the process 
from three to six times. Each coat must dry thoroly before the next 
coat is applied. 



220 llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. 

\'a]-]iish jxilisliing consists in rubbing off' the varnish, not in rnb- 
bing it on, as in Frwith polishing. To polish varnisli, I'ub with a felt 
pad, powdered pumice-stone and water. Enb till the surface is smooth, 
unpitted and even, being careful not to rub thru the edges. Wipe 
clean witli a wet sponge and chamois skin. This gives a dull or "egg- 
sliell"' linisli. For polishing varnish, a. simple method is to rub with 
a lotary motion, using a mixture of yj sweet oil or cottonseed oil, 
and ^ alcohol. 

.V more laborious process is as follows: After rnljbing to a dull 
tiiiisli, rub ground rotten stone and water with cliamois skin in a cir- 
cular motion. Let the rotten stone di'v on the surface. Then wipe 
oif with the naked hand. I'ubbing in a circular direction and wiping 
the hand every time after passing over the work. This looks simple, 
but is really a fine art. Tliese processes have practically replaced 
French ])olishing in the trade. 

PAINTING 

Paints are used for the same ])urpose as other finishes, with the 
i'dditional one of giving an o])aque colored covering. The materials 
used are : 

1. A body whose function is to give covering ])ower. This is 
usmilly wliite lead, Imt it is often adultei'ated with zinc oxide; 2. 
Pigments; 3. Linseed oils, raw and boiled, which are used to give 
consistency, adhesiveness and also elasticity to the coat when dry. 
For outdoor work boiled oil is used and foi- indoor work, raw oil; 
4. Turpentine, which is used to thin out the paint and to make it 
dry more quickly. 

The common method of painting is: L Set anv nails with nail- 
set: "3. Sandpapei': 3. Shellac the knots: 4. Prime with a thin coat 
of |iaint. mostly white lead, (that is, little color,) boiled oil. and 
lur])entine (the ])ro|)ortion of drying oil is greater than in ordinarv 
iiaint) : 5. Putty uj) cracks, nail holes, etc.: (i. Sandpaper if a small 
nice job: 7. Then ])aint two oi- three coats with paint thick enough 
so it will not run. with long. evt'U strokes with the grain. The order 
of painting a door is, panels, muntins, rails, and last, stiles. 

For inside work use half as much turpentine as oil. This gives a. 
(hdl finish. For outside woi'k. where lusti'e is wanted, little or no 
turftentine is used. 



WOOD FINISHING. 221 

Tliis is the old way, and is still used for all common work. But 
for fine painting, as carriage work, a filler is now used first, because a 
priming to be durable should unite with the wood, gras-ping the 
fibers and filling the pores, so that after coats cannot sink in. The 
object is to cement the surface. Priming is often called "rough 
suifi'." The old way did not do this, with the result that the oil sep- 
srated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood. The principal 
makers of paints now recommend a filler before any white lead is 
added. 

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR WOOD FINISHING 

Brushes. It is well to have several varieties to help keep them 
distinct. For varnish and shellac, the best are those with the bristles 
set in hard rubber. For ordinary purposes, brushes one inch wide 
are satisfactory. For stains, cheap, tin-bound brushes are good 
enough, and are easily replaced. 

Cups. Half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap, satisfactory, and 
easily kept clean. For the care of cups and brushes, see Chapter VI, 
The Equipment and Care of the Shop. 

Steel wool. This consists of shavings, turned from thin steel 
discs set together in a lathe. It comes in various grades, No. 00 to 
No. 3. The finest, No. 00, is coarse enough for ordinary purposes. 

Sandpaper. Use No. 00 smeared with boiled oil. Pulverized 
pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone, both very fine, are used to 
rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish. 
Use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish. Horse- 
hair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish. 
French felt, medium hard, is used for rubbing down copal varnish 
with pumice stone. 

Cotton waste is the cheapest available material for wiping. 

Cheese cloth is better for some purposes, but more expensive. 

Soft cloth without lint is necessary for French polishing. '^Berke- 
ley muslin,'^ "Old Glory," and "Lilly White" are trade names. A 
fine quality is necessary. The starch should be washed out and the 
cloth dried before using, and then torn into little pieces, say 4" square. 

Fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil, japan, 
and turpentine. Their object is to give a perfectly level and non- 
absorbent basis for varnish covering. 

Oils. Eaw linseed oil is very fat and dries slowly. It is used for 
interior work. 



222 IIANUWOKK JX WOOD. 

Boiled oil is linseed oil boiled with lithai\ue (I'bO) and white 
vitriol, which removes nuieli of the fatty ingredient and gives it dry- 
ing quality. 

Turpentine is a volatile oil fioni the sap of long-leaf ])ine. Jt is 
mixed with oil in painting to give further drying qualities. 

Benzine is a cheap substitute for turpentine. It is a liighly in- 
fjammable product of coal tar and evaporates quickly. 

Drier. is an oil in which resin has been dissolved. It is mixed 
with varnishes and paint to make them dry quickly. It is also some- 
times used as a varnish itself. 

Japan is a varnish-like li(juid made of shellac or other resin, lin- 
seed oil, metallic oxides, and turpentine. It is used as a medium in 
V hich to giind colors and as a drier. 



WOOD FIN1SIII2^G. 223 



WOOD FINISHING 



Referexces : * 

( 1 ) Stains. 

Hodgson, II, pp. 2.J-59, Maire. pp. 4G-64. 

1.55-164. 
Van Deusen, Man. Tr. Mag., 

G: 93. 

(2) Fillers. 

Hodgson, II, pp. 7-25. Maire, 65-72. 

(3) Oil Finisli. 

Hodgson, II, pp. 99-103. Maire. p. 117. 

(4) Wax. 

Hodgson. II, pp. 93-99. Maire. pp. 112-116. 

(5) Varnish. 
Shellac. 

Maire, pp. 73-80, 101-111. Hodgson, II. pp. 6G-93. 

Journal, 8oc. Arts, 49: 192. Inter. Encyc, Vol. X, "Lao." 
Ency. Brit., Vol. XIV, "Lac." 
Oil Varnish. 

Hodgson, II, pp. 5!)-r)6. Maire. pp. 81-100. 

Clark, pp. 1-09. Enci/. Brit., Vol. XXIV, "Varnish." 

(6) Paints. 

Brannt, p. 134-152. . Building Trades Fockefbook, pp. 

357-360. 



For detailed directions for the treatment of different woods, see Hodg- 
son, II. pp. 112-153, Maire, pp. 124-141. 

*For general bibliography see p. 4. 



INDEX. 



Acorn of hinge, 131. 

Adjustment of plane, 70, 72. 

Adze, 88. 

Agacite grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137. 

Alcohol: 

Grain dOtliyl). 21 G. 
Wood (Metliyl). 216. 
Alligator, 28. 
Ammonia, 209, 211. 
Angle of bevel, 58, 59. 
Aniline stain.s: 
Alcohol, 211. 
Oil, 210. 
Water, 211. 
Antique oak, 210. 
Anvil, 141. 

Arrangement of .'^hop, 142-144. 
Arris, 57, 184. 
Asphaltum, 210. 
Auger-bit, 53, 84, 85. 137, 140. 
Auger-bit-gage, 1 1 6. 
Ax, 10, 51, 87. 

Back-saw, 65. 136. 138. 

Balloon frame. 201. 

Banana f>il. 213. 216. 

Band-saw, 31. 

Banking grounds. 16. 

Beam-compa=;s, 114. 

Beams, 201. 

Bench, 97-99, 136, 138, 141, 143. 
Glue and Stain, 142, 148. 

Bench-hook, 78, 102, 104, 137, 139. 

Bending wood, 199. 

Benzine, 209, 210, 214, 222. 

Bevel of cutting tools, 52, 55, 120. 

Bevel, Sliding T, 113, 137. 140. 

Bezel, See Bevel. 

Bill-hook, 10. 

Binding of saw, 6:!. 65. 

Bit. Plane. 70. 77. 

Bits, 84-87. i:!7. 140. 

Bit. Twist. S4. S5. 

Bit-point drill, S4, 85. 

Bit-stock, See Brace. 

Black, 209, 211. 

Blank-hinge, 131. 

Blazes on trees. 7. 8. 

Blinds, 194. 



Block, Corner, 155 No. 12, 177, 199. 

Block-plane, See Plane, Block. 

Blue, Prussian, 210. 

Board, 48. 

Board construction, 184-192. 

Board-Hipper, 35, 36. 

Board foot, 48, 109. 

Board measure, 48, 109, 110. 

Board structures, 184-192. 

Bolt of lock, 133. 

Bolts, 127. 

Book shelves, 185. 

Boom, Log, 20, 21. 

Boring, Directions for, 85. 

Boring tools, 83-87. 

Box, 187-191. 

Bottoms, 188. 
Lids, 188, 189. 
Of lock, 133. 
Brace. 103, 105, 137, 140. 
Brace, Ratchet, 103. 105. 137. 
Brace-measure, 107. 
Bracket, 185. 

Brad-awl, 83, 84, 138. 140. 

Brads, 124. 

Breaking out the roll-ways, 16. 

Bridging, 201. 

Brown, Bismarck, 210, 211. 
Dark, 212. 
Reddish, 210, 211. 
Vandyke, 209. 

Bru.«h, 138, 141, 149, 209, 210, 221. 

Brush, See also Duster. 

Brusli-Keeper. 150. 

Buckling of saw. 62, 65, 67. 

Buffer. 121, 147. 

Burn of shellac, 217. 

Butt-hinge, 131. 

Cabinet construction, 192-195. 

Cabinet for nails and screws, 142, 
145, 147. 

Calipers, 114. 

Camp, logging, 8, 9. 

Cant, 35, foot-note. 

Cant-flipper, 35, 36. 

Cant-hook, 10, 13. 

Cape-chisel, 141. 

Care of the shop, 14 2-150. 



224 



Index. 



225 



Carriage-bolts, 127. 
Carteria lacca, 215. 
Carving tools, 60, 140. 
Case-hardening, 46. 
C-Clamps. 

See carriage-makers' clamps. 
Ceiling, 201. 
Center-bit, 84, 86. 
Chain, 10, 13, 15, 16. 
Chair, 198-201. 
Chalk, French, 197. 
Chamfer, 82, 115, 161, 184. 
Chatter, 71, 92. 
Cheek of joint, 160. 
Cheese-cloth, 221. 
Chest, 193, 195. 
Chest-hinge, 131. 
Chisel, 52-59, 136. 137. 139, 140, 183. 

See also Chiseling end-wooa. 
Paring, Sidewise chiseling. 
Chisel, Cape, 141. 

Carving, 54. 

Cold, 141. 

Corner, 55. 

Firmer, 54, 136, 139. 

Framing. 55. 

Mortise, 54, 55, 161. 

Paring, 54. 

Round-nosed 55, 141. 

Skew, 55. 

Turning, 54. 
Chisel-gage. 69. 
Chiseling, end-wood, 56, 57, 183. 

Sidewise, 56. 

Perpendicular, 56. 
Choking of Plane, 76. 
Chopping tools, 87, 88. 
Clamp, 101, 138, 141, 169. 

Carriage-makers, 102, 138, 141. 

Column, 169. 

Plane, 70, 77. 
Clapboards, 201. 
Claw hammer, 96. 
Cleaning tools, 121. 
Cleats, 186, 188. 
Comb-grain, 41, 4 2. 
Compass, 113, 114, 137. 139. 

Blackboard, 117, 141. 
Compass-saw, 66, 139. 
Consumer, 33, 41. 
Copal, 218. 
Coping-saw, 139. 
Copper, Soldering, 141. 
Corner-blocks, 155, No. 12, 177, 190. 
Corner-board, 201. 
Cornering tool, 83. 
Corner-iron, 127, 128. 



Corner locking, 164. 
Corrugated fasteners, 125, 170. 
Cost of Equipment, 136-142. 
Countersink, 84, 87, 126, 138, 140, 

141. 
Cricket, 186. 

Crosscut-saw, 10, 64-66, 137, 139. 
Cross-grained wood. Planing, 75. 
Crowbar, 10. 

Crown of Plane-cutter, 71. 
Cruising, 8. 
Cup, 138, 141, 221. 
Curling-iron, 70. 
Cutter, Plane, 70, 76, 77, 138. 
Cutting-gage, 116, 140. 
Cutting tools, 51-83. 
Dado, 56, 80. 

See also Joint, Dado. 
Dado-plane, 80. 
Dam, Splash, 20, 21. 
Decay, 32, 45. 
Decking logs. 13. 
Demonstration seats, 143. 
Derrick, Locomotive boom, 25. 
Destructive lumbering, causes of, 7. 
Die, 141. 
Die-holder, 141. 
Dividers, 113, 114, 137, 140. 
Dogs, log, 34. 
Donkey engine, 24. 
Door, 192, 193. 
Dovetail-saw, 66. 137. 139. 
Doweling, 127, 130, 152, 154, 175. 
Dowel-plate, 139, 140. 
Dowel-pointer 83, 139, 175. 
Dowel-rods, 127, 175. 
Draw-bolt, lS4. 
Draw-knife, 61, 139. 
Drawer, 166, 190-192. 

Guide, 196. 

Rail, 196. 

Runner, 196. 
Drawing-board, 186, 188, 205. 
Dray-road, 9, 13. 
Drier, 222. 
Drill. See Hand Drill. 

Twist, 84. 85. 138, 141. 
Drive, The log, 16-18. 
Duplicate parts, 155, 204. 
Duster, Bench, 121. 137. 139. 
Dynamite, 21. 
Edge action, 52. 
Edged Tools, 5 Iff. 
Edger, 35, 36, 37. 
Eight-square scale, 108. 
Egg-shell finish, 94. 216. 
Equipment, Chap. YI, 136-150. 



226 



Index. 



Ksoutchi on of lock, U3. 

Expansive-bit, S4, 87, 137, 140. 

Falling beds, 24. 

Fastenings, Chap. V, 123-135. 

Felling trees, 10, 11, 23. 

Ferrule, 54. 

File, 90. 91, 137, 140, 142, 147. 

File-card, 91, 137, 140. 

Filing a saw, 67. 

Filletster, 80, 137, 139. 

Filler, 213, 221. 

Finishing, Wood, Chap. X, 209-223. 

Firmer-chisel, 

See under chisel, 
]-^irmer-goiige, 

See under gouge. 
[<"ish glue, 129. 
Fitter, 9. 

Flooring, 30, 42, 174, 20], 206. 
Flume, 21, 22. 

Foerstner Auger-bit, 84, 87. 
Foot-stool, 186. 
Fore-edge. 196. 
Fore-plane, 

See under Plane. 
Framed structures, 195-201. 
Framing-chisel, 

See under Chisel. 
Frog, Plane, 70, 75. 
Fuming with animoniii, 212, 214. 
Furring, 201. 
Gages, 114-116. 

Chisel, 69. 

Cutting, 116, 140. 

Marking, 114-116. 136, 139, 203. 

Mortise, 116, 140. 161. 

Pencil. 115. 

Screw. 116, 117, 126. 

Slitting, 116. 

Twist-drill, 117. 

Wire, 116, 117. 
Oelatin, 12S. 

Gimlet-bit, 84, 85, 137, 140. 
Glass-cutter, 138, 141. 
Glaziers points, 125. 
Glue, 128-131. 

Fish, 129. 

Liquid, 129. 

Preparation of, 129. 

Tests of. 129. 
Glue-pot, 129, 138, 141, 148. 
Gluing, Directions for, 130, 153, 167- 

170, 173, 189, 190. 
Golden Oak, 211. 
Gouge, 59, 60, 137, 140, 183. 
Grading of lumber, 36. 



Grain of wood, 60, 75, 172, 185, 186, 

192, 205, 209, 210. 
Green, 209. 
Grinder or Hog, 41. 
Grinder, Empire Tool, 61. 120, 121, 

137, 140. 
Grinding of tools. See sharpening. 
Grindstone, 117-120, 137, 140. 
Groove for drawer, 191. 
Groove for panel, 164. 
Groove, Triangular. 66. 156, 158, 159, 

161. 
Hack-saw 13 7, 141. 
Hammer, 58, 94, 95, 96, 136, 139. 

Ball-peen, 142. 

Bell-faced, 95. 

Riveting, 141. 
Hand-drill. 104. 106, 138, 141. 
Handscrew, 101. 102, 138, 141, 170, 

173. 
Handscrew, Iron, 102. 

See also Clamp, carriage-makers. 
Hatchet, 88. 

Hauling logs, 13. 15, 22, 23. 
Hinges. 131-133. 
Hinges, sizes of. 131. 
Hinging. Directions foi'. 132. 
Hog, 41. 

Holding tools. 97-105. 
Hone.vcombing. 46. 
Horse. 64, 65. 100. 
Horsehair. 200. 

House construction, 200, 201, 
Tee-road. 13. 14. 
Impregnation of timber, 47. 
Iron acetate, 211, 212, 
Iron, Soldering. See copper. 
,Iack-ladder, 32. 
Jack-plane. See Plane, 
.lam, log, 18, 19, 21. 
.Tapan, 209, 222. 
.Japanese. 69, 97, 189. 
•Joinery, 151. 
.Joint, Beaded, 175, No. 73, 182. 

Bevel-shoulder, 172, No. 67, 182. 

Bird's mouth, 172, No. 69, 182. 

Boat-builders, 152, No, 7, 177, 

Brace, 171, No. 65, 182. 

Brace. Housed. 172. No. 66, 182. 
207. 

Bridle, 172, No. 68, 182. 

Butt. 155. No. 11, 177, 187, 206, 

Butt, Doweled, 152, No. 8, 153, 
177. 194. 

Caulked, 157. No. 22, 178. 

Checked, 157, No, 21, 178, 



Index. 



Joint, continued. 

Cogged, 157, No. 22, 178. 
Corked, 157, No. 22, 178. 
Column, 169, No. 52. 181. 
Cross-lap, 155, No. 14, 177. 
Dado, 157, No. 25, 179, 191. 
Dado and rabbet, 158, No. 26, 

179, 187. 
Dado, Dovetail, 158, No. 28, 179, 

191, 206. 
Dado, housed. 157, No. 25, 179, 

187, 207. 
Dado, tongue, and rabbet, 158. 

No. 27, 179, 191. 
Dovetail, Blind miter, 167, No. 
51, 180, 187. 
Half-blind, 166, No. 49, 180. 
Lap, 166, No. 49, ISO. 
Secret, 167, No. 51, 180, 187. 
Stopped lap, 166. No. 50, 180. 
Thru multiple, 165, No. 48, 180, 

187, 206. 
Thru single, 165, No. 47, 180, 

194. 
Doweled, 175, No. 75, 182. 
Draw-bolt, 154, No. 10, 177. 
Edge-to-edge, 172-174. 
End-lap, 156, No. 16, 178, 194, 

206. 
Fillistered, 174, No. 71, 182. 
Fished, 151, No. 2, 177, 207. 
Forked tenon 157, No. 23, 178. 
Gain, 159, No. 29, 179, 205. 

Dovetail, 158, No. 28, 179. 
Glue, 172, No. 70, 182. 
Glued-and-blocked. 155, No. 12. 

177. 
Grooved, 157, No. 25, 179. 
Halved Tee, 156, No. 15, 178. 
Halving, Dovetail 157, No. 18, 

178. 
Halving, Beveled, 157, No. 19, 

178. 
Halving, 155-157. 
See also Joint, Cross-lap, End- 
lap, Middle lap. 
Haunching, Table, 164, No. 43. 
180. 
Taper, 164, No. 43. 180. 
Hopper, 155, No. 13, 177. 
Lap-dovetail, 157, No. 18, 178. 
Lapped and strapped 151, No. 1, 

177. 
Ledge, 157, No. 24, 179, 187. 
Ledge and miter, 171, No. 58, 

181, 187, 206. 
Matched, 174, No. 72, 182. 



Joint, continued. 

Middle-lap, 156, No. 15, 178. 
Miter, 167, No. 52, 181, 187, 194, 
206. 
Double dovetail keyed, 171, No. 

57, 181. 
Double tongue, 171, No. 60, 181. 
Doweled, 170, No. 53, 181. 
Lipped, 171, No. 58, 181. 
Slip dovetail, 171, No. 56, 181. 
Slip-feather, 170, No. 55, 181. 
Slip-key, 170, No. 55, 181. 
Spline, 170, No. 54, 181, 187. 
Stopped, 171, No. 59, 181. 
Tongue, 170, No. 54, 181. 
Mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160- 
164, 172, 194. 
Bare-faced, 164, No. 44, 180, 

185. 
Blind, 160, No. 32, 179, 193. 
Double, 163, No. 41, ISO. 
Dovetail, 162, No. 37, 179. 
End, 164, No. 46, 180. 
Foxtail, 162, No. 36, 179. 
Haunched. 163. No. 42, 180, 

193, 196, 207. 
Housed, 164, No. 45, ISO. 
Keyed, 163, No. 39, ISO, 185. 
Oblique, 172, No. 67, 182. 
Open, 164, No. 46, 180. 
Pinned, 162, No. 38. ISO, 194, 

207. 
Shoulder, 163, No. 40, 180. 
Sttib, 160, No. 30, 17 9. 
Thru, 160, No. 31, 179. 
Tusk, 163, No. 40. ISO, 207. 
Wedged, 12S, 162. Xo.'^. 34 and 
35, 179. 
Notched, 157, No. 20. 178. 
Notch, Double, 157. No. 21, 17S. 
Rabbet, 157, No. 24, 179, 174; 

No. 71, 182, 187. 
Rebated. See Joint, Rabbet. 
Rubbed, 172, No. 70, 173, 182, 

205. 
Scarf, 151, Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7, 

177, 204, 207. 
Slip, 164, No. 46, ISO, 194. 
Spliced, 151, Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 177, 

204, 206, 207. 
Spline, 175, No. 74, 182. 
Squeezed, 172, No. 70, 174, 182. 
Stretcher. 171, No. 61, 181. 
Strut, 171, No. 62, 181, 207. 
Thrust, 171, Nos. 63 and 64, ISl, 

207. 
Tie, 171, Nos. 63 and 64, 181. 



228 



Index. 



Joint, continued. 

Toe, 171, Nos. 63 and 64. 1!<1. 

Toe-nailed 154, No. 9. 177. 

Tongne-and-groove 174, No. 7l'. 
182. 
Jointer-plane, 71'. 
Jointing a saw, 68. 
Joints, Chap. VII, 151-182. 

Beveled, 167-172. 

Butt, 152-155. 

Dovetail, 164-167, 204. 

Halving, 155-160, 203, 204. 

Heading, 151-152. 

Mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160- 
164, 172. 
Joi-sts, 201. 
Kerf, 10, 30, 62, 65. 
Key-pin of lock, 133. 
Kiln, lumber, 44, 46. 
Knife, 61, 136, 139. 
Knife, Sloyd, 61. 
Knob, Plane. 70. 
Knock-down furniture. 163. 
Knuckle of hinge. 131. 
Lac, insect, 2i5. 

Seed, 216. 

Shell, 216. 

Stick, 216, 
Lacquer, 218. 
Ladle, 141. 
Landlooking, 7. 
Latli-machines, 39, 41. 
Laths, 39, 49, 201. 
Lay-out, 152, 154, 155, 156. 158, 159. 

160, 163, 165, 183, 191, 195, 203, 
204. 
Leather, 59, 200. 
Leaves of hinge, 132. 
Level, Spirit, 116. 
Lever-cap, 70, 77. 
Lid of box, 188. 
Lighting of shop, 14 2. 
Live rollers, 35. 
Loading logs, 15. 
Lock, mortise, 134. 

Rim, 133, 134. 
Lockers, 13S, 142, 146, 147. 
Locks, 133, 134. 
Locomotive, Geared, 26. 

Snow, 28. 

Boom-derrick, 25. 
Log-boom, 20, 21. 
Log-carriage, 34, 35. 36. 
Log-flipper, 34. 
Logging, Chap. I, 7-29. 
Log-kicker, 34. 



Log-slip, 34. 

Log-stop, 34. 

Logwood, 211, 212. 

Loss of tools, 144-146. 

Lumber, 48. 

Lumber yard, 36, 38. 

Lumberman's board rule. 111. 

Lumber mill, 32, 33. 

M (1000 feet), 48, 49. 

Machine-screws, 127. 

Mahogany, 211. 

Mallet, 58, 96, 139. 

Marking-gage, 114-116, 136, 139, 203. 

.Marking tools, 113-117. 

Matcliing-plane, 80, 139. 

Maul, 10. 

Measurements, 203. 

Measuring-tools, 105-117. 

Measuring wood, 13, 48, 49, 105-116. 

Mill-pond, 21, 32. 

Miter-bo.K, 102, 137, 139, 194. 

Miter-clamp, 138, 141. 

Miter-square, 113, 137, 140. 

Molding-plane, SO. 

Monkey-wrench, 103, 138, 141. 

Mortise, 58, 160. 

i\Iortise-and- tenon. 

See Joint, Mortise-and-tenon. 
Mortise-chisel, 54, 55, 161. 
Mortise-gage, 116, 140, 161. 
:Multiple parts, 204. 
Muntin. 192. 193. 
:\luslin. 200, 221. 
Nails. 123. 124. 

Flat-liead, 124. 

Size of, 124. 

Wire, 123. 

Wrought, 123. 
Nailset, 97, 138, 141. 
Nig-ger, steam, 34, 35. 
Nippers, 103, 105, 138, 141. 
Octagonal scale, 108. 
Oil, 65, 130, 221. 

Banana, 213, 216. 

Boiled, 209, 210, 222. 
Oiler, 137, 140. 
Oilstone, 58, 121, 137, 140. 
Ordering of lumber, 4 9. 
Paint, 220-221. 

Panel construction, 164. 192-195, 205. 
Panel-iron, 127. 12S. 
Paper, Building, 201. 
Paring, 55, 57. 
Paring-chisel, 54. 
Peavey, is. 
Peen of hammer, 95, 



Index. 



229 



Picture-frame. 167-169, 194, 205. 

Clamp. 167. 168. 

Vise. 100. 101. 167, 194. 
Pigments, 209. 
Pillow, 77. 
Pincers, 103, 105. 
Pinch-dog, 102, 103, 141, 170. 
Pintle of hinge, 131. 
Plane, parts of, 70. 

Bed rock, 71, 75, 137, 139. 

Block, 77, 137, 139. 

Circular, 80. 

Fore, 72. 137, 139. 

Jack, 71, 136. 138. 

Jointer. 72. 

Matching, 80. 139. 

Molding, 80. 

Oriental, 69. 

Rabbet, 79, 137, 139, 194. 

Router, 83, 139, 160. 

Scraper, 79, 139. 

Scratch, 79, 130. 

Scrub, 78. 

Smooth, 72. 75, 137, 139. 

Tongue-and-groove. 80. 

Universal, 81, 82. 
Plane-iron, 70, 77. 
Planes, 69-82. 
Planing, Directions for, 74-76, 78. 

Order of, 72. 
Plate-rack, 185. 
Plates, metal, 127. 
Plate, wall, 201. 
Pliers, 103, 105, 138, 141. 
Plow, Snow, 13. 
Plug-cutter, 84, 86, 126, 140. 
Points in saw-teeth, 63. 
Polish, French, 217-218. 

Oil, 214. 

Varnish. 220. 

Wax, 214. 
Polishes, 214-220. 
Position of benches, 14-2. 
Posts, corner, 201. 
Potash, 150. 

Potassium bichromate, 130, 211, 212. 
Poun-ding tools, 94-97. 
Preservation of lumber, 47. 

See also seasoning. 
Principles of joinery, Chap. IX, 203- 

208. 
Pumice stone, 217. 
Quarter-sawing. 42, 43. 
Rabbet-plane, 79, 137, 139, 194. 
Raft, Giant, 27, 29. 
Rafter-table, 110. 
Rafters, 201. 



Rail, 186, 193. 
Rail, Drawer, 196. 
Railways, logging, 22, 2G. 
Rasp, 91. 

Ratchet-brace, 103, 105, 137. 
Reamer, 84, 87. 
Rebate. See Rabbet. 
Red, Venetian, 210. 
Ribbon, Wall, 201. 
Ridge-pole, 201. 
Rift-sawing, 41. 
Rip-saw, 63, 137, 139. 
Rivet-set, 141. 
Road, Ice, 13, 14. 

Logging, 9, 13. 14. 

Monkeys 13, 15. 

Tote, 8. 
Rollers, Dead, 36. 
Rollers, Live, 35. 
Roll-ways, 16. 
Rossing of bark, 24. 
Router-plane, 83, 139, 160. 
Rule. 105, 106, 137, 139, 203. 
Running foot, 49. 
Rust, 125. 

On tools, 147. 
Sacking the rear, 16. 
Saddle seat, 60, 199. 
Sandpaper, 93, 221. 
Saw, 62-68. 
Selvage of lock, 133. 
Saw, Back, 65, 136, 138. 

Band, 30, 31, 32. 

Butting, 36. 

Circular, 30. 

Compass, 66, 139. 

Compression. 62. 

Coping, 139. 

Crosscut, 10, 64, 137, 139. 

Cut-off, 36, 39. 

Dovetail, 6-6, 137. 139. 

Gang, 30. 

Hack, 137, 141. 

Logging, 10, 23. 

Pulling, 10, 62, 67. 

Pushing, 62. 

Rip, 63, 137, 139. 

Tension, 62, 67. 

Turning, 67, 137, 139. 
Saw-carriage, 34, 35, 36. 
Sawdust, 39. 

Saw-filing and setting, 67. 
Saw-horse, 64, 65, 100. 
Sawing, Directions for, 64, 65. 
Saw-jointer, 68. 
Sawmill, 32, 33. 
Sawmilling. Chap. II, 30-44. 



280 



Index. 



S;nv-set, 6S. 

Saw-vise, 67, 68. 

Sawing into lengths. 11, 12, 24. 

Scaling logs, 13. 

Scrap-box, 187. 

Scraper, 76, 91, 1.37, 139. 

Scraper, Veneer, 91. 92, 137, 139. 

Scraper-plane, 79, 139. 

Scraper steel, 92, 137. 139. 

Scraping tools, 90-94. 

Scrap pile, 41, 42. 

Scratch-awl, 116, 140. 

Scratch-plane, 79, 130. 

Screen-hinge, 131. 

Screw-box, 139. 

Screwdriver. 104, 106. 138, 14o. 

Bit, 105, 106. 138 140. 
Screw-gage, 116, 117, 126. 
Screws, 125-127. 

Rule for using, 126. 

Sizes of, 126. 
Scribing, 112. 
Scrub-plane, 78. 
Seasoning. Chap. Ill, 4o-48. 

Air, 45. 

Hot-air. 46. 

Kiln, 46. 

Oil, 47. 

Water, 47. 
Set of saw, 63, 67. 
Shank, 54. 
Sharpening of tools, Tlie, 54, 58, 59, 

60. 67, 76, 85, 86, 92-93, 117-121. 
Sharpening-tools. 11 7-121. 
Sheatliing. 201. 
Shellac, 149. 215-21S. 

Orange, 216. 

White, 216. 
Shelves, 185, 205. 
:Uiingles, 49, 201, 205. 
Shingle-machine, 39, 41. 
.Shoe-pegs. 128. 
Slioulder of joint, 160. 
Shlinkage, 186, 188, 1S9, 191, 192, 

194, 205. 
Siding. 201. 
Sienna. 209. 
Sighting, 71, 75. 
Silex, 214. 
Sill, 201. 
Sizing, 130. 
Skidder, steam. 25. 
Skidway. 9, 13, 24. 
Slab, 34, 35. 39. 
Slab-slasher, 39, 4 0. 
.Slash -grain, 41, 4 2. 
Slash -sawing, 41. 



Sleigh haul, 13, 15. 
Sliding cut, 53, 56, 75, 78. 
Sliding T bevel, 113. 
Slipstone, 60, 121, 137, 140. 
Slip-tongue carts, 22. 
Smooth-plane, 72, 137, 139. 
Snips, 141. 
Snow-locomotive, 28. 
Soap, as a lubricant, 126. 

To prevent gluing, 130. 
Sole of Plane, 70. 
Sorting-jack, 21. 
Sorting-shed. 38. 
Spiriting off, 217. 
Splash-dam. 20. 21. 
Splitting tools, 51. 
Spokeshave, 82, 137, 139, 183. 
Stains, 209-213. 

Chemical. 211-213. 

Oil, 150. 209. 210. 

Spirit. 211. 

Water, 210. 211. 
Steel square. 107-111. 137, 140. 
Steel wool. 94. 211. 217, 221. 
Sticking, 45, 48. 
Stile, 193. 

Storing of lumber, 48. 
Stove, Gas, 138, 141, 148. 
Stove-bolts, 127. 
Straight cut, 53. 
Strength of joints, 206. 
Strike of lock. 133. 
Stringer, 196. 
Stropping, 59. 
Studding, 201. 
Superposition. Method of, 156, 158 

159, 163, 166, 204. 
Survey of forest laml, 7. 
Svvainper, 12. 
Sweep of brace, 103. 
Table-hinge, 131. 
Table construction, 130, 164, 195. 

See also Table Top. 
Table top, 172, 175, 197. 
Taboret, 169, 170, 186. 
Tacks, 124. 

Tacks, double-pointed, 102, 124. 
Tang, 54. 
Tank, 14. 

Taper of cutting tools, 52. 
Tee-hinge, 131. 
Teeth of saw, 63. 
Tenon, 160, 206. 

See also Mortise and tetion. 

Joint, Mortise jnid tenon. 
Tenon-saw, 65, 
Toe of Plane, 70, 71. 



Index. 



231 



'I'hroat of Plane, 70. 

Tie-beams, 201. 

Timber, 48. 

Tonguing-and-gTooving-pIane, 80. 

Tool-grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137, 140. 

Tool-holder for grinding, 118-120. 

Tool-rack, 143, 144. 

Tools, Chap. IV, pp. 51-122. 

Tools, logging, 10. 

Traction engine, 28. 

Tools, Loss of, 144-14G. 

Tractor, 28. 

Trammel-points, 114, 140. 

Transfer, Lumber, 36, 37. 

Transportation of logs, 13, 15. 16ff, 
23 

Travoy. 9. 

Tray, 60, 183. 

Triangle, Blackboard, 141. 

Trimmer, 36, 38. 

Trimming logs, iz. 

Tripoli, 121, 147. 

Trolley for logs, 25. 

Try-square, 112, 136, 139, 140, 203. 

Tumbler of lock, 133. 

Turning-saw, 67, 137, 139, 183. 

Turpentine, 209, 210, 214, 222. 

Tusk. 

See Joint, mortise-and-tenon, 
tusk. 
Twist-bit, 84, 85. 
Twist-drill, 84, 85, 138. 
Twist-drill-gage, 117. 
Umber, 209. 
Undercut, 206. 
Universal plane, 81. 
Unjoined pieces, 183, 184. 
Upholstering, 199-201. 
Valuation survey, 7. 
Van. Logging camp. 9. 



Varnish, 149, 215-220. 
Copal, 218-220. 
Cremona, 218. 
Spirit, 215-218. 

Varnishing, Process of, 219. 

Vaseline, 147. 

Veining tools, 140. 

Veneer-scraper, 91, 92, 137, 139. 

Vermilion, 210. 
Vise, 99, 138. 

Iron, 138, 141. 
Walnut, 210. 
Waney boards, 36. 
Warping, 48. 
Washer-cutter, 87, 140. 
Waste, cotton, 209, 221. 
\vaste, sawmill, 39. 
Waterproof glue, 130. 
Water-stains, 210. 
Water-table, 201. 
Wax. 214. 
Webbing, 200. 
Wedge, Plane, 69, 70. 
Wedge, 10, 51, 52, 128, 162. 

Action 51, 52. 
Whetting tools, 58. 
Wind in board, 74. 
Winding sticks. 74, 113. 
Window-sash, 194. 
Wire edge, 59. 
Wire-gage, 116, 117. 
Wooden structures, types of. Chap. 

VIII, 183-202. 
Working edge, 72, 115. 
Working face, 72, 115. 
Wrench, 103. 

See also Monkey-wrench. 
Yarding logs, 24, 26, 27. 
Yard-stick, 138, 141. 
YelloAv, Chrome, 209. 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



;; 




'' 


'. 


ill 




,!1 1 



013 960 191 9 




